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维基百科，自由的百科全书
義大利入侵英屬索馬利蘭
第二次世界大戰東非戰役的一部分

1940年8月，義大利征服英屬索馬利蘭
日期1940年8月3日—19日
(2周2天)
地点
英屬索馬利蘭
09°33′N 44°04′E / 9.550°N 44.067°E / 9.550; 44.067
结果 義大利勝利
领土变更 英屬索馬利蘭併入義屬東非[a]
参战方

 意大利

指挥官与领导者
兵力
4,507名英軍及英聯邦部隊[b] 24,000名義軍及其殖民地部隊
伤亡与损失
總數：2,275人
大英帝國：
50人戰死
105人負傷
120人失蹤
索馬里（服役於英軍）
约2,000人
7架飛機摧毀
10架飛機受損
1搜拖船損失
2艘船艦受損

總數：3,029人
義大利：161人及阿斯卡里（英语：Royal Corps of Colonial Troops）：1,868人

  • 465人戰死
  • 1,530人負傷
  • 34人失蹤
索馬里班達（英语：Bands (Italian Army irregulars)）
约1,000人
4架飛機摧毀

義大利入侵英屬索馬利蘭（1940年8月3日—19日）是1940—1941年間東非戰役的一部分，當時法西斯義大利集結義、厄、索等部隊入侵英屬索馬利蘭，擊敗了當地的英軍衛戍部隊、英聯邦及由索馬里非正規軍支援的殖民地部隊。義軍的勝利源於機動與速度，但受阻於地形、雨天氣候及英軍的抵抗。

8月11日—15日間的圖格阿甘山口戰役（英语：Battle of Tug Argan）中，義軍挾著火炮優勢發起進攻，寡不敵眾的守軍最終逐漸被消耗殆盡，且逐步遭到包抄，直到剩下佈防的山頂變得孤立而一一遭到攻佔。向米爾戈隘道發起的反及失利後，當地的指揮官里德·戈德溫-奧斯丁（英语：Alfred Reade Godwin-Austen）少將的兵力已變得太少，以至於無法挽救敗局，同時也無法確保撤往柏培拉的路線。

8月17日，英軍在巴卡桑（Barkasan）發起後衛行動，並於天黑後撤離，但臨時撤退行動進展得比想像還順利，因此他們無須在納西耶（Nasiyeh）設立第二道防線。雨天的氣候持續拖慢義軍的推進，而當他們發現柏培拉附近的機場仍有敵軍駐防時，先前義軍規劃的奇襲（英语：Coup de main）行動便不切實際。英軍之敗引發爭議，使得戰區指揮官阿奇博爾德·韋維爾將軍開始與其下屬以及溫斯頓·邱吉爾首相之間發生衝突，最終導致韋維爾於1941年7月被克勞德·奧金萊克取代。

背景

義屬東非

参见：第二次義大利衣索比亞戰爭和義屬東非

1936年5月9日，義大利獨裁者貝尼托·墨索里尼正式宣布義屬東非成立（義大利語：Africa Orientale Italiana，AOI），合併自義屬厄利垂亞、義屬索馬利蘭，以及於1935年10月3日—1936年5月5日間征服的衣索比亞帝國。[1]1940年6月10日，墨索里尼向英、法兩國宣戰，使得英軍沿著地中海—蘇伊士運河—紅海一線的補給線受到非洲義軍的威脅。[2]埃及與蘇伊士運河成為明顯的目標，而義軍入侵法屬索馬利（吉布地）或英屬索馬利蘭也變得可行。墨索里尼期待能宣傳在蘇丹、英屬東非（肯亞（英语：Kenya Colony）、坦干伊喀（英语：Tanganyika Territory）、烏干達）等地的勝利。然而，義軍參謀部的戰略估計則是假定不會早於1942年開戰；義大利皇家陸軍及皇家空軍（英语：Regia Aeronautica）對長期戰爭並未有所準備，也未準備佔領大片非洲土地。[2]

中東司令部

参见：中東司令部

埃及王國當時含括蘇丹地區，後者係由英、埃兩國共管。自1882年以來，英國在埃及土地上均駐有軍隊，但已根據《1936年英埃條約（英语：Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936）》大幅縮減規模，該條約只允許英軍在需保衛蘇伊士運河的情況下佔領埃及。[3] 小股英軍及國協各國部隊駐紮在蘇伊士運河與紅海線上，那是英國本土與遠東及印度洋地區的生命線。1939年中，阿奇博爾德·韋維爾被任命為新設立的中東司令部的將軍總司令（英语：General Officer Commanding-in-Chief），負責保衛地中海及中東地區。《法義停戰協定（英语：Franco-Italian Armistice）》簽訂之時，義大利第五軍團在的黎波里塔尼亞與突尼西亞的法軍相持，而義大利第十軍團則在昔蘭尼加與埃及英軍對峙。[4]

義大利皇家陸軍在利比亞及埃及地區共有21.5萬人左右，而當地英軍則約有3.6萬人，另有2.75萬人在巴勒斯坦受訓。[4]韋維爾只有8.6萬人，需要分散投入到利比亞、伊拉克、敘利亞（英语：Mandatory Syrian Republic）、伊朗及東非等地。面臨每英里平均僅有八人保衛的窘境，韋維爾認定防禦戰略是唯一可行的策略，並打算在主要哨所採取拖延行動，以期獲得最好的結果。1940年底，英國外相安東尼·伊登在喀土木召開會議，與衣索比亞皇帝海爾·塞拉西一世、南非揚·史末資將軍（溫斯頓·丘吉爾的區域顧問）、韋維爾、東非高階軍事指揮官（包含普拉特少將（英语：William Platt）及康寧漢少將）等人會晤。會中決定對衣索比亞用兵，包含投入衣索比亞愛國者（英语：Arbegnoch）。11月，英國布萊切利園的政府密碼學校破譯了東非義大利皇家陸軍的高階密碼，讓英軍與大英國協部隊取得情報優勢。當月稍晚，義大利皇家空軍（英语：Regia Aeronautica）更換的新式密碼也遭中東聯合局（Combined Bureau, Middle East）破譯。[5]

英屬索馬利蘭

索馬利蘭區域劃分

1900年—1920年間，英國在索馬利蘭戰役中對抗迪里耶·古雷（法语：Diiriye Guure）的德爾維希國，以其奪取控制當地領土。[6]1910年，英國駐軍被迫撤到岸邊直到一戰結束，但之後當地部隊與國王非洲步槍隊（英语：King's African Rifles）和英國皇家空軍用三周時間發起進攻，以四場戰役便於1920年結束索馬利蘭的抵抗。索馬利蘭殖民地擁有約68,000平方英里（180,000平方公里）的平坦土地，海岸縱深最多達60英里（97公里），盡頭是平均4,000英尺（1,200米）高的山脈。[7]

當地農業發展空間很小，32萬名居民中多數以畜牧業為生。該區最大的城市與港口是柏培拉，周圍是沙漠和灌木叢；寒冷季節時人口為三萬，夏季時則降為一萬五千人。柏培拉港是一流的錨地，也是殖民地的主要轉口港。但該港沒有港口設施，並不適合遠征軍，因為船隻必須用駁船卸貨，這種方法需要十天才能清空3,000容積總噸的船舶。由於當地的七月至八月間是強熱風（阿拉伯语：Kharif‎）吹拂期，因此該段時間無法進行裝卸作業。[7]

法屬索馬利蘭

主条目：第二次世界大戰期間的法屬索馬利蘭（英语：French Somaliland in World War II）
1938—1941年間的，圖中顯示其與亞丁、英屬索馬利蘭以及法屬索馬利蘭的相對位置

自戰爭爆發而阻礙《法義停戰協定（英语：Franco-Italian Armistice）》的執行以來，指揮英法聯軍的保羅·勒讓蒂霍姆（英语：Paul Legentilhomme）准將持續與英國合作。7月27日，英國人發現針對法屬索馬利蘭的停戰協定條款，包括殖民地非軍事化以及義大利能自由進出港口與法屬區域的阿迪斯阿貝巴鐵路。當休伯特·德尚（法语：Hubert Deschamps (historien)）總督（英语：List of governors of French Somaliland）表明他會遵循維琪政權的指示時，勒讓蒂霍姆威脅將動用軍隊阻止他。當地義大利停戰委員會（英语：Italian Armistice Commission）嘗試與其聯繫時，勒讓蒂霍姆向開羅方面保證他會爭取時間，但也預期義軍會發起進攻。[8]

黑衛士兵團第二營在埃及登艦，乘坐巡洋艦抵達亞丁準備增援法軍，而勒讓蒂霍姆則假裝不知停戰協定。勒讓蒂霍姆還拒絕新任維琪法國總督馬克西姆·熱爾曼（法语：Maxime Germain）入境。7月19日的總督委員會上，勒讓蒂霍姆遭到海軍及空軍指揮官群反對，而且為了避免流血衝突，決定將反對維琪政權的派系逐出。勒讓蒂霍姆的時間所剩無幾，後於8月5日出逃亞丁，讓熱爾曼宣布對英國斷交。義軍對於英軍仍可能使用該殖民地作為橋頭堡感到擔憂，而皮埃爾·努瓦赫塔斯（英语：Pierre Nouailhetas）則於8月7日取代熱爾曼成為新任總督，後於9月2日自法國抵達當地。[9]

前奏

英軍防禦計畫

吉布地（法屬索馬利蘭）地理

索馬利蘭邊境長達750英里（1,210公里），義大利佔領衣索比亞後，除法屬索馬利蘭45英里（72公里）的邊境外，其他所有區域都與義大利新殖民地相連。根據1936年的霍恩比報告，英國陸軍部打算不對入侵進行抵抗。1938年，總督亞瑟·勞倫斯（Arthur Lawrence）對這種失敗主義政策表示遺憾，並建議該殖民地可以非軍事化，英軍可選擇離開或保衛當地。根據英軍指揮官亞瑟·查特（英语：Arthur Reginald Chater）皇家海軍陸戰隊准將，少量增援將使當地駐軍有能力抵抗敵軍入侵達十二天，足以讓救援部隊從印度抵達，但該策略遭駁回。1939年8月，撤離策略根據兩種情境作出修改：如果法軍成功守下吉布地，英軍會撤往當地與其會合；倘若法軍敗戰，英軍會撤入山中等待良機。所有防禦安排均是基於與勒讓蒂霍姆的合作為前提下執行，戰時將交由後者指揮英法聯軍。[10]

假戰期間，韋維爾變得不情願在完成撤往吉布地的計畫實施完成前，將英軍交由法軍指揮，給予查特更多考量空間去決定是否仍與法軍合作。查特期望能在哈爾格薩及布勞駐軍，以發起拖延行動然後撤往山區。吉布地到索馬利蘭的主要道路以群山為主體，其中有六條隘道足以讓有輪車輛通過；雙方同意必須駐軍以阻擋義軍，並提供基地以利盟軍發起反攻。1939年12月，英軍再次改變心意，下令必須抵抗敵軍入侵，且為了維護大英帝國的威望，必須盡可能地守住柏培拉。與法國達成的承諾，讓他們陷入加強殖民地防線的麻煩及花費；由於勒讓蒂霍姆與巴黎當局對英法聯盟的分歧，儘管英國殖民地獲准修建防禦工事，與邊界平行的吉勒（英语：Jidhi）及多博（英语：Asha Addo）隘道卻都未有設防。[11][12]

倫敦皇家砲兵博物館內展示的3.7英吋山炮（英语：QF 3.7-inch mountain howitzer）

1940年，索馬里蘭駱駝軍（英语：Somaliland Camel Corps）中的631名成員，駐紮於殖民地內的五處所在地，一警察小隊則在柏培拉工作。駱駝軍計有29輛機動載具、122匹馬匹以及244隻駱駝，但未有重武器，僅有舊式比利時.475英寸（12.1 mm）口徑單發步槍，以及品質存疑的140萬發彈藥、機槍及反坦步槍。同年二月，英國政府計畫於5月中派遣1,100名援軍，但戰爭部及殖民部間的財政糾紛將第一營的抵達時間推遲到5月15日，第二營則延至7月12日。法屬索馬利蘭的守軍被要求封鎖吉勒及多博隘道，但英軍的戰略期望當地守軍更具誘惑力的目標。[13][11]

英軍備戰情形

法義停戰協議簽訂後，勒讓蒂霍姆的親英謊言因而結束，導致查特接到指令，需針對無法守成殖民地的情況下去規劃撤離方案。[14]到了八月，由北羅德西亞團（英语：Northern Rhodesia Regiment）第一營、國王非洲步槍隊（英语：King's African Rifles）第二（尼亞薩蘭）營、來自肯亞的第一東非輕砲連（下轄四門3.7英吋山炮（英语：QF 3.7-inch mountain howitzer））、來自亞丁殖民地的第二旁遮普團（英语：2nd Punjab Regiment）第一營與第十五旁遮普團（英语：15th Punjab Regiment）第三營、索馬利蘭駱駝軍以及來自南羅德西亞團（英语：Rhodesia Regiment）的37名軍官與士官支援團等組成了守軍。8月8日，黑衛士兵團第二營抵達當地。這支守軍部隊可說是雜牌軍，有著不同的制服與廚房安排、沒有合適的基地或指揮部、火炮、運輸與號誌設備短缺。空軍飛機必須自亞丁起飛，同時也忙於護航巡邏和防空工作；僅第23團兩門{{le|3英吋英擔防空炮|QF 3-inch 20 cwt|3英吋防空炮]]、香港及新加坡旅可自亞丁調派而來。[15]

布倫亨式MK-I型轟炸機（2015年）

英軍預期柏培拉將成義軍入侵的目標，而當地與衣索比亞的邊境過長以至於難以防衛，且沒有任何陣地可以爭奪經過法屬索馬利蘭附近的塞拉到達港口的通道，並從當地沿海岸公路向東、通過哈爾格薩或是經由布勞。The inland mountains were passable by wheeled and tracked vehicles only on the Hargeisa and Burao roads, Hargeisa being the more direct route through a gap at Tug Argan and the Burao road through a defile known as Sheikh Pass. Once north of the hills, the coastal plain had no feature where a small force could prevent the advance of a larger one.[16]

Chater garrisoned Tug Argan with two battalions and the mountain artillery, one battalion to guard the other two approaches and kept one battalion in reserve. When the Black Watch arrived, it went into reserve and the 3/15th Punjab Regiment reinforced Tug Argan. The Camel Corps formed a screen in advance of the main defences to observe and delay invaders with patrols of the Somali Police Force (Illalo) an armed constabulary, usually used as a frontier police force.[16] The RAF in Aden had 8 Squadron (Bristol Blenheim bombers plus two Free French Martin Marylands), 11, 39, 45 Squadron (Blenheim) and 203 Squadron (Blenheim IVF long-range fighters), 94 (Gloster Gladiator fighters), 223 Squadron (Vickers Wellesley). A Bristol Bombay of 216 Squadron participated and 84 Squadron ferried six Blenheim IFs to Aden to replace losses on 15 August.[17]

Italian plans

IMAM Ro.37 Lince (Lynx) reconnaissance aircraft of the Regia Aeronautica

The Italians remained suspicious of French intentions and after Legentilhomme was replaced by Germaine feared a British invasion through Djibouti. Despite orders from Rome to be cautious, Aosta wanted to occupy Djibouti to forestall the British, with a simultaneous advance on Berbera to counter a British intervention. Aosta submitted the plan to Mussolini on 18 June and in August received permission for the invasion. While waiting, Aosta and his deputy, General Guglielmo Nasi, completed an appreciation of the likely opposition and the campaign objectives; on 14 July they predicted that the main battle would be fought in the Karim and Jerato passes; if the defenders stood their ground, the Italian troops would be able to envelop their flanks.[18] The Italian invasion force included five colonial brigades, three Blackshirt battalions and five Bande, half a company of M11/39 medium tanks and a squadron of L3/35 tankettes, several armoured cars, 21 howitzer batteries, pack artillery and air support.[19][20]

The Italian newspaper Corriere della Sera covering the start of the Somaliland offensive

Lieutenant-General Carlo de Simone issued instructions on 25 July as commander of the main force, the Harrar Division with eleven African infantry battalions in three brigades, the three Blackshirt battalions, the tanks and armoured cars.[21] The French and British were to be prevented from uniting and receiving reinforcements to attack Harrar, by defeating the garrison and occupying British Somaliland.[21] Because the Assa Hills rose to over 4,500英尺（1,400米）, parallel to the coast about 50 mi（80 km） inland, there were three approaches to Berbera for wheeled and tracked vehicles for the Italians to consider.[20]

The direct route with the widest pass was via Hargeisa and the Italian plan was for the western column to seal off French Somaliland and then send light forces east along the coast road.[20] The eastern column (Brigadier-General Arturo Bertello) would move to Odweina and Burao in the south, cover the flank of the central column and be prepared to link up with it if necessary. De Simone with the central column would establish a base at Hargeisa and Adalek, then to carry the main weight of the attack through the Mirgo Pass towards Berbera. The western column (Lieutenant-General Sisto Bertoldi) was to advance towards Zeila to seal the border with French Somaliland and then move eastwards along the coast road towards Berbera.[20]

Battle

A Savoia-Marchetti SM 81

On 31 July 18° Squadriglie arrived at the Scelene airstrip near Dire Dawa with six Ca 133 bomber/transport aircraft. On 1 August Comando Tattico dell Settore Aeronautica Ovest (CTSAO, Western Sector Tactical Command) was created for the invasion of British Somaliland. At first the CTSAO (Generale Collalti) had 27 bombers, 23 fighters and seven reconnaissance aircraft.[22] During the afternoon, flights of three SM 81 bombers, attacked shipping off Zeila as two waves of six Blenheim Mk Is from 8 and 39 squadrons, escorted by two 203 Squadron Blenheim IVFs, bombed the Italian airfield at Chinele, which had been discovered that morning.[23]

The Blenheims dived to 10,000英尺（3,000米） through anti-aircraft fire as CR 42 fighters of 410° Squadriglie scrambled from Dire Dawa (8 mi（13 km） away) and attacked the Blenheim IVFs. As the second wave of six Blenheims arrived, Captaino Corrado Ricci, the commander of 410° Squadriglie, took off in his CR 32 and shot one down. As the Blenheims flew home over Zeila, the crews spotted a flight of the SM 81 bombers attacking the port. Three Blenheims broke formation and shot down one of the Italian bombers. On the morning of 2 August, 39 Squadron raided Chinele aerodrome again and were intercepted by CR 42s of 413° Squadriglia; the CR 42 of the CO Capitano Corrado Santoro, was hit in the engine and force landed.[24]

On 3 August 1940, British air reconnaissance discovered that about 400 Italians had crossed the frontier at Biyad. Nasi communicated with de Simone by wireless and liaison aircraft; the central column crossed the frontier and made for Hargeisa and Tug Argan in the Assa Hills as the western column advanced on Zeila and the eastern column struck east for Odweina, to deceive the defenders and exploit opportunities. Early on 4 August the central column advanced towards Hargeisa, observed by the SCC which skirmished with the column to impose delays.[25] In the afternoon, three SM 81s attacked Berbera and a 94 Squadron Gladiator attacked one from the 15° Squadriglia which reached Jijiga with one dead crewman and two wounded. On 4 August, two SM 79 bombers of 44° Gruppo arrived at Dire Dawa and two of the 94 Squadron Gloster Gladiators at Berbera transferred to Laferug further south closer to Tug Argan, both strips having only small-arms for defence. There were two 3-inch anti-aircraft guns at Berbera but these were reserved for the defence of the port. During the night 216 Squadron at Aden sent a Bristol Bombay to bomb Dire Dawa but a lightning storm forced the crew to divert to Zula.[26]

General Guglielmo Nasi

On 5 August as the Italian invasion force occupied Hargeisa, covered by Ro 37bis reconnaissance aircraft of 110° Squadriglia and attacks by SM 79s on Zeila, Berbera and Aden, two more SM 79s arriving from Addis Ababa and three Ca 133s from Doghabur to participate. Flights of three Blenheims of 8 Squadron made three attacks on Italian motor columns west of Hargeisa, one Blenheim being shot down by a CR 32 of 410° Squadriglia.[26] The eastern column, comprising mainly Bande, reached Odweina on 6 August and then headed north-west toward Adadle, a village on the Tug Argan, instead of towards Burao (tug, Somali for a dry sandy riverbed). The SCC and small patrols of Illalo, a small force of local levies normally employed on police duties, conducted a delaying action as the other British and Commonwealth forces retreated towards Tug Argan.[27] At 01:00 twelve light tanks advanced in line; three were hit and knocked out by Boys anti-tank rifle fire from the SCC and the company of the NRR defending the hill station.[28] On 6 August Blenheims of 8 and 39 squadrons continued to fly reconnaissance sorties and to attack the Italian columns. An 8 Squadron Blenheim was damaged by twelve attacks by CR 42s; the Italian pilots claimed one bomber shot down and a probable. With Hargeisa captured, two CR 32s and two CR 42s arrived from Dire Dawa on 7 August and began patrols; to the south, Ca 133s flew sorties over the front.[29]

The Burao countryside in 2006

The Italians paused at Hargeisa for two days to reorganise and then resumed the advance through the Karim Pass toward the Tug Argan, in the Assa Hills. Aosta urged haste but Nasi refused to rush because the road was deteriorating under the heavy traffic and rain. The Italian advance resumed on 8 August and for two days closed up to the British defences as the Italians made preparations to attack. The defenders reported the presence of Italian medium tanks and the captain of HMAS Hobart donated the ship's QF 3-pounder Hotchkiss saluting gun, a three-man crew and 30 rounds of ammunition.[27][c] The two Gladiators at Berbera were caught on the ground at 06:00 by three Italian fighters; one Gladiator was burnt out and the other damaged; when the news reached Laferug the other two Gladiators were ordered back to Aden. Blenheim IVFs of 203 Squadron from Aden patrolled Berbera as a substitute but two SM 79s bombed the port. Around noon a Blenheim attacked three more SM 79s as they bombed Berbera, damaged one and killed a member of the crew. Three SM 81s had attacked the Godojere Pass in the morning and three Ca 133s bombed the Kerim Pass. The Ro 37bis continued to fly reconnaissance sorties and the fighter patrols were maintained; a CR 32 and a CR 42 were damaged in landing accidents at Hargeisa.[29]

In the north, the Bertoldi column captured Zeila, about 150 mi（240 km） north-west of Berbera, cutting communications with French Somaliland and then began a slow advance south-east along the coast road, under intermittent air attack from Aden and bombardment from the sea, pushing back the SCC rearguards as far as the village of Bulhar by 17 August.[31][20][d] Just before Wavell left Cairo to visit London for talks, reports of the size of the invasion force led him to order most of a field artillery regiment and two anti-tank guns of the 4th Indian Infantry Division to be sent from Egypt to Somaliland by special convoy. The Indian Army was asked to organise the first echelon of the 5th Indian Infantry Division for an infantry battalion, a field battery and a field company to be disembarked at Berbera. Anti-aircraft guns at Port Said were ordered to the colony but this decision was quietly countermanded two days later. Major-General Reade Godwin-Austen was appointed to command the enlarged force, with orders to defend the Tug Argan, defeat the Italian invasion and plan secretly to evacuate the defenders if it became necessary. Godwin-Austen reached Berbera on 11 July and took over command that evening; the reinforcements were too late and were diverted to Sudan.[33][34]

Tug Argan position

The Tug Argan Gap in 1954

From 7 to 8 August, the defenders had received reinforcements of the 1/2nd Punjab Regiment and the 2nd Battalion Black Watch; by 10 August, de Simone had closed up on the British positions behind the Tug Argan and prepared the Italian attack. The road from Hargeisa turns north through the Kerim Pass to Tug Argan and then east between the Assa hills to the south, hills and dry riverbeds (tugs) to the north. The pass is a flat stone expanse with occasional thorn bushes, tugs and a few rocky hills about 2,000至2,500 yd（1,800至2,300米） apart, named Black, Knobbly, Mill and Observation hills by the defenders, with Castle Hill 2 mi（3.2 km） east of Mill Hill.[16]

The positions had been fortified with machine-gun posts and a modest amount of barbed wire. The defences were impossible to by-pass and had good observation but with so little artillery, the advantage was dubious. The defenders were too few in number to cover the gap and the hills were far enough apart for an attacker to pass between them; only Castle Hill was behind the other fortified hill tops, providing little scope for defence in depth. There were several camel tracks through the Mirgo Pass 8 mi（13 km） from Black Hill and the Jerato Pass in the Assa Hills, which gave further opportunities for the Italians to exploit their numerical superiority.[35] During the morning of 9 August, three Italian fighters strafed the airfield at Berbera but found only a damaged Blenheim. The aircraft were fired on by personnel at the base and the Australian cruiser Hobart in the harbour joined in with its machine-guns. The Gladiator damaged the day before was dismantled and taken to Aden. On 10 August the Italian northern column reached Zeila despite naval bombardments and bombing from aircraft flying from Aden; the column was eventually stopped by its vehicle tyres being damaged by the rough ground.[36]

Battle of Tug Argan

主条目：Battle of Tug Argan
Modern geographic map of Somaliland showing the coastal plain and hilly interior

The Australians from Hobart, with their Hotchkiss gun, arrived at dawn on 10 August but the gun had to be dismantled to load, which reduced its rate of fire to once every five minutes, while its 32 HE rounds and 32 solid shot lasted.[33] The battle for Tug Argan began and another two CR 32 and a CR 42 were sent from Dire Dawa to Hargeisa along with a Ca 133 of 53° Squadriglia; five SM 79s from Addis Ababa were transferred to Dire Dawa. Early in the morning 8 Squadron sent three Blenheims to dive bomb Italian troops at Tug Argan, one being damaged by a CR 42. In the afternoon another three Blenheims bombed the village of Dubato; two of the Blenheims collided on the return journey and crashed in flames. On 11 August a morning attack was made by Six Ca 133s and three SM 81s on the Godojere Pass, a SM 81 being shot down by ground fire. Three CR 42s strafed Laferug and a SM 79 bombed the airstrip afterwards. A Blenheim was claimed shot down by Italian troops but no loss appeared in British records.[36]

On 11 August, the Italians bombarded then attacked the west end of the Assa Hills at Punjab Ridge with a brigade of infantry, pushed back the defending company of the 3rd Battalion, 15th Punjab Regiment, then repulsed a counter-attack; attacks on Mill and Knobbly hills failed.[37] At dawn a couple of Blenheims from 11 and 39 squadrons from Aden bombed Italian artillery around Darboruk against anti-aircraft fire then the 11 Squadron Blenheim was bounced by a CR 42 and damaged while the crew were trying to drop a message for British troops. The 39 Squadron machine was also attacked and made an emergency landing at Berbera. About two hours later three 39 Squadron Blenheims arrived to repeat the attack and the formation leader was attacked by a 410° Squadriglia CR 32. The pilot of the third Blenheim saw the attack, jettisoned bombs and attacked the Italian fighter, which made a head-on attack, wounding the Blenheim pilot and killed the observer. The pilot managed to reach Berbera and crash-land; the Italian pilot was also wounded. During the attack, a Blenheim IVF of 203 Squadron patrolled Berbera and tried to intercept three SM 79s but broke off the pursuit when a hit in the cockpit, wounded the pilot and navigator. Italian aircraft provided ground support all day, six Ca 133s bombing Mandera and Laferug.[38]

On 12 August, all of the British positions were attacked simultaneously and by the evening Mill Hill, the least fortified position, had been captured after a determined resistance by troops of the Northern Rhodesian Regiment. Two of the East African Light Battery howitzers were lost and the Italians had established themselves in the Assa Hills, dominating the southern side of the gap. On 13 August, the defenders of Knobbly Hill defeated another attack but the Italians infiltrated down Mirgo Pass past the defended localities and ambushed a convoy carrying water and ammunition, which managed to fight its way through to Castle Hill.[37] On 13 August the aircraft of CTSAO concentrated on the area to the east of Adadleh; the Jerato Pass was bombed by Ca 233s and the crashed Blenheims at Berbera were strafed twice by CR 32s, one on the second attack being hit by small-arms fire and landing inside British-held territory. Another three SM 81s were transferred from Shashamane (south of Addis Ababa) to Dire Dawa. Italian outflanking moves at Tug Argan led the British to begin a withdrawal to Berbera. Eleven 223 Squadron Wellesleys were sent to reinforce the RAF at Aden.[39]

On 14 August, Castle Hill and Observation Hill were bombed and bombarded by artillery but an attack on Observation Hill failed. Mussolini signalled to Aosta,

Pour all available reserves into Somaliland to stimulate the operation. Order the entire Imperial air force to co-operate.

——Mussolini[37]

Italian troops of the western column reported air attacks at Zeila and on a column advancing down the coast road towards Berbera, one bomber being claimed shot down but no losses appearing in RAF records. SM 79s attacked shipping off Bulhar, three SM 81s and three Ca 133s bombed a fort near the Godojere Pass and retreating troops on the road to Berbera, nearby. Three CR 32s attacked road transport at Laferug, Mandera and tracks to Berbera.[39]

At Tug Argan a counter-attack towards Mirgo Pass by two companies of the 2nd KAR, had some success before it was forced back by Italian attacks. The Italians were close to positions from which they could cut off the defenders from their sole line of supply. The Italian advantage in artillery meant that the defended localities could be picked off piecemeal. After four days, the defenders were tiring and there was no better position to retreat to; an attempt to hold Berbara alone would be pointless. Godwin-Austen informed Henry Wilson, the General Officer Commanding-in-Chief (GOC-in-C) British Troops in Egypt of the situation, concluding that further resistance at Tug Argan would be futile and likely to result in the loss of the force. Wavell had been called to London and arrived on 7 August but Wilson kept him informed of events, signalling his decision to order the evacuation of the colony to London with a few minutes. Wavell told Churchill who said that it could not be helped, then Wavell left to return to Cairo.[40] Withdrawal would result in an estimated 70 percent of the force being saved but if necessary the defenders would fight on. When it was clear that the attack towards Mirgo Pass had failed, sufficient troops were left, either to retrieve the situation or cover a withdrawal. Early on 15 August, Godwin-Austen signalled his conclusions to Wilson, who ordered Godwin-Austen to withdraw from the colony.[41] Godwin-Austin planned a slow retirement to Barkasan, about 33 mi（53 km） from Berbera, then to Nasiyeh, 17 mi（27 km） from the port. Over three nights, civilians then troops would be embarked, the time taken being determined by the monsoon, which usually made it difficult to reach ships by boat at night and before midday.[42]

Retreat to Berbera

Kenyan troops from the 7th Battalion, King's African Rifles parading in Mogadishu, 1941

On 15 August, CTSAO bombers continued to fly sorties in support of the army. Three Ca 133s bombed around Laferug and three SM 79s bombed troops around Berbera. Six Blenheim I bombers flew from Iraq to reinforce the RAF at Aden and on passing Kamaran Island an SM 81 flew underneath the formation. The Blenheims dived on the bomber and three achieved firing positions, shooting it down. On landing the crews handed over their aircraft and returned to Iraq in Bombay transports the next day.[39] After a long bombardment, the Italians overran Observation Hill and during the night the NRR retreated from Black, Knobbly and Castle hills. The Black Watch, two companies of the 2nd KAR and elements of 1/2nd Punjab Regiment formed a rearguard at Barkasan on the Berbera road, about 10 mi（16 km） behind Tug Argan and other troops moved back to Nasiyeh.[42]

The CTSAO concentrated its operations against the port and in a dawn attack two SM 81 bombers attacked ships in the harbour and were damaged by anti-aircraft fire. Two SM 79s bombed at noon and one was also damaged by anti-aircraft fire. The third Italian raid, by three SM 79s met two Martin Marylands from the Free French flight in 8 Squadron, which were patrolling Berbera and one Maryland pilot claimed a SM 79 shot down; it was not confirmed but crashed in flames soon after.[43][e] The CTSAO at Dire Dawa was reinforced by two SM 79s of 44° Gruppo and three CR 32s from 411° Squadriglia at Addis Ababa and three SM 81s from Shashamanna.[43]

The retirement was followed up cautiously by the Italians, who attacked the defenders at Barkasan on 17 August. The Black Watch made several counter-attacks and repulsed the Italian forces but it was only a matter of time before the defences were outflanked. The evacuation at Berbera went more smoothly than expected and Godwin-Austen was able to withdraw the rearguard at Nasiyeh and once night fell, bring back the rearguard from Barkasan.[42] Five Blenheims bombed the captured landing ground at Hargeisa and five Ca 133s with two CR 32 fighter escorts bombed the British residency at Sheikh. A 39 Squadron Blenheim on a reconnaissance sortie, was hit by ground fire and came down in the sea, the crew being rescued by the cruiser HMS Ceres. As the Italian invasion neared completion, three SM 81s of the 4° Gruppo went back to Shashamanna, two of the SM 79s of 44° Gruppo went back to Addis Ababa and three more SM 79s of 10° Squadriglia 28° Gruppo arrived from Gura in Eritrea after the 10° Squadriglia had exchanged it SM 81s from reinforcements of SM 79s being flown from Libya. In Aden 39 Squadron gave up two Blenheims to 11 Squadron so that each had five operational bombers.[44]

Evacuation

The Royal Navy had built an all-tide jetty and had commenced evacuating civilian and administrative officials; on 16 August, the British started to embark troops.[45] Attacks by the Regia Aeronautica on the British vessels in the Gulf of Aden and Berbera had begun on 8 August to little effect; HMAS Hobart was slightly damaged in two attacks and the auxiliary vessel Chakdina suffered splinter damage.[46] On 17 August, the Italian western column at Bulhar, about 40 mi（64 km） west of Berbera, was engaged by the light cruiser Ceres and halted by gunfire.[19] After dark, the rearguard was withdrawn to Berbera with minimal losses and loading was complete by the early hours of 18 August.[47] At 05:35 on 18 August three 11 Squadron Blenheims bombed Italian vehicles near Laferug and were intercepted by two CR 32s of 410° Squadriglia, which shot down a Blenheim in flames. the crew parachuted but two of the men died in hospital of burns. Soon after the Blenheims took off, five Wellesleys from 223 Squadron flew from Perim Island and bombed Addis Ababa airfield in bad weather. A CR 42 managed to damage four of the Wellesleys whose crews claimed two hangars destroyed, two damaged, four SM 79s destroyed, two damaged and Aosta's runabout destroyed. Italian records show a SM 79, a S 75 and three Ca 133s destroyed, one SM 79 and a SM 81 damaged. Two attacks on Berbera were made by SM 79s during the morning and three SM 79s escorted by two CR 42s attacked soon after noon, the fighters driving a Blenheim F away. Italian troops overcame the second British defensive position before Berbera.[48]

Before sailing for Aden early on 19 August, Hobart, with the force headquarters aboard, stayed behind to collect stragglers and complete the destruction of buildings, vehicles, fuel and stores. The tug Queen was the only British ship lost in the operation, scuttled by her crew on 18 August.[47][49] Italian forces recovered the hull and renamed her Stella d' Italia. The armed tug became the only Italian naval ship south of Bab El Mandeb.[50] The Royal Navy embarked 7,140 people, 5,690 of them being front-line troops, 1,266 civilians and 184 sick. Most of the Somalis of the SCC were sent home to wait for the British to return, earlier plans for them to fight a guerrilla war being scrapped. SCC members who were embarked, became an armoured car unit under the same title.[51] There was little Italian interference with the evacuation, perhaps because on 15 August Aosta had ordered Nasi to allow the British to evacuate without too much fighting, in the hope of a peace agreement being mediated through the Vatican.[52] The last CTSAO raid was flown against Berbera by three SM 79s; soon afterwards, British aircraft from Aden attacked Italian troops as they occupied the town that evening. Much of Berbera was on fire and the wreckage of four British aircraft were found on the airfield.[48] Mussolini annexed the colony to the AOI, as part of the Italian Empire.[53]

Aftermath

Analysis

Impero italiano (red); the maximum extent of the Italian Empire shown in pink

The Italians had shown the ability to coordinate columns separated by many miles of desert; the forces under British command had kept their discipline during the retreat and preserved most of their men. British Somaliland was annexed to Italian East Africa and Mussolini boasted that Italy had conquered a territory the size of England: British Somaliland, the border outposts of Karora, Gallabat, Kurmak and Kassala in Sudan, Moyale and Buna in Kenya. News of the evacuation came as a shock to British public opinion but Wavell backed Godwin-Austen, saying that he had judged the situation correctly.[53][54] The British had to immobilise and abandon 350 vehicles and most of their stores because of the need to ferry everything to the ships offshore.[55]

From 5 to 19 August the RAF at Aden flew 184 sorties and dropped 60 long ton（61 t） of bombs. From 16 to 19 August, the RAF flew 12 reconnaissance sorties, 19 bomber-reconnaissance sorties, 72 bomber sorties against Italian troops and transport and 36 fighter sorties over Berbera of the total. The British learned that inadequately defended airstrips could quickly be made untenable, leaving bombers flying from Aden unprotected against air attack. Despite the land campaign, a convoy sailed the Red Sea early in August and another convoy began the voyage on 19 August escorted by 14 Squadron Wellesleys as the Blenheim IVFs were busy over Berbera. After the British evacuation, both sides dispersed aircraft sent to reinforce the local units, the CTSAO being disbanded on 26 August.[48]

Winston Churchill criticised Wavell for the loss of British Somaliland; because of the few casualties, Churchill thought that the colony had not been vigorously defended and proposed a board of inquiry. Wavell refused to co-operate and said that Godwin-Austen and Wilson had conducted a textbook withdrawal in the face of superior numbers. Wavell sent a telegram to Churchill which included the passage

...a big butcher’s bill was not necessarily evidence of good tactics.

——Wavell[56]

Churchill was said by General John Dill, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS), to have been moved to "greater anger than he had ever seen him in before"; the incident was the beginning of the end for Wavell who was superseded by Claude Auchinleck in July 1941.[56]

In 2016, Andrew Stewart wrote that given the exiguous nature of the British force in the colony, the defenders had done well to resist for as long as they had. The defence of British Somaliland took place during the Battle of Britain and the defeat could not be portrayed in heroic terms. Churchill was wrong to condemn Wavell and his subordinates but as Minister of Defence as well as Prime Minister, he could dictate consequences to defeated generals. Adolf Hitler called the evacuation of the colony a "hard blow" but

...all the British had lost was the privilege of maintaining an expensive garrison in their least valuable colony.

——Cowie War for Britain (1941)[57]

The capture of the colony was the greatest success of the Italians in the East African campaign but they had not been able to exploit the opportunities that they had created. Delays caused by the terrain, weather and the cancellation of a coup de main by Italian 300 infantry on the port had enabled the British to get away, despite the improvised nature of the embarkation.[58]

Casualties

In 1954, Ian Playfair, the British official historian, wrote that the British suffered 260 casualties and estimated Italian casualties at 2,052 men. Seven British aircraft were shot down and ten were badly damaged in the fourteen days' fighting.[59] In 1988, Alberto Rovighi, the Italian official historian, wrote that the Italians suffered 465 men killed, 1,530 wounded and 34 missing, a total of 2,029 men, of whom 161 were Italian and 1,868 were in local Eritrean and Somali Ascari units of the Regio Corpo di Truppe Coloniali. Somali irregulars supporting the British suffered about another 2,000 casualties during the invasion and occupation; about 1,000 Somali irregulars became casualties fighting on the Italian side.[60] In 1993, Harold Raugh wrote that 38 of the British casualties had been killed and 222 wounded.[61] In a 1996 publication, Christopher Shores gave the same figures for Italian casualties as Maravigna and wrote that the RAF lost seven aircraft and had ten damaged.[48] In 2007, Andrea Molinari recorded 1,995 Italian casualties and four aircraft destroyed.[62]

Subsequent operations

主条目：Operation Appearance

On 16 March 1941, the British executed Operation Appearance from Aden; the two Sikh battalions of the Indian Army that had been part of the defence force in August 1940 and a Somali commando detachment landed on either side of Berbera from transports escorted by HMS Glasgow, Caledon, Kandahar and Kingston.[63] The invasion by the Sikhs was the first successful Allied landing on an occupied beach of the war; few men of the Italian 70th Colonial Brigade offered resistance. Repairs began on the port and supplies for the 11th African Division were passing through within a week, reducing the road transport distance by 500 mi（800 km）. The British re-captured the whole of British Somaliland and on 8 April, Chater was appointed Military Governor.[64]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ 1940年8月18日—1941年4月8日
  2. ^ 7成5是國王非洲步槍營（英语：King's African Rifles）及索馬里非正規軍
  3. ^ PO H. Jones, AB Hugh Sweeney and AB W. J. Hurren took the 3-pounder, which had been mounted on an improvised carriage, to reinforce the defenders at Tug Argan. The sailors went missing and were feared dead but became the first Australian prisoners of war until they were liberated at Adi Ugri (now Mendefera) in Eritrea on 1 April 1941.[30]
  4. ^ HMS Kimberley, Aukland, Carlisle, Ceres and HMAS Hobart participated in shore bombardments. Hobart was attacked by three Italian fighters and sent its Walrus to attack an Italian headquarters at Zeila. The Walrus crew strafed Italian vehicles and dropped two 112磅（51公斤） bombs.[32]
  5. ^ Not carrying wireless, the crew misunderstood hand signals from the other crews who could see smoke coming out of the aircraft. The SM 79 crew waved back but then the aircraft exploded and hit the ground near Sheikh, south of Berbera.[43]

Citations

  1. ^ Playfair et al. 1959，第2頁.
  2. ^ 2.0 2.1 Playfair et al. 1959，第38–40頁.
  3. ^ Playfair et al. 1959，第6–7, 69頁.
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 Playfair et al. 1959，第19, 93頁.
  5. ^ Dear & Foot 2005，第245, 247頁.
  6. ^ Omar 2001，第402頁.
  7. ^ 7.0 7.1 Stewart 2016，第62頁.
  8. ^ Playfair et al. 1959，第123–125, 128頁.
  9. ^ Playfair et al. 1959，第128, 167–168頁.
  10. ^ Stewart 2016，第63–64頁.
  11. ^ 11.0 11.1 Raugh 1993，第75–76頁.
  12. ^ Stewart 2016，第65頁.
  13. ^ Stewart 2016，第67頁.
  14. ^ Playfair et al. 1959，第167–168頁.
  15. ^ Playfair et al. 1959，第172–173頁.
  16. ^ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Playfair et al. 1959，第173頁.
  17. ^ Shores 1996，第42–54頁.
  18. ^ Playfair et al. 1959，第168, 174頁.
  19. ^ 19.0 19.1 Mackenzie 1951，第23頁.
  20. ^ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 Playfair et al. 1959，第174頁.
  21. ^ 21.0 21.1 Stewart 2016，第75頁.
  22. ^ Shores 1996，第45頁.
  23. ^ Shores 1996，第41頁.
  24. ^ Shores 1996，第41–43頁.
  25. ^ Stewart 2016，第75–77頁；Playfair et al. 1959，第174頁.
  26. ^ 26.0 26.1 Shores 1996，第43–45頁.
  27. ^ 27.0 27.1 Playfair et al. 1959，第173–175頁.
  28. ^ Stewart 2016，第76–77頁.
  29. ^ 29.0 29.1 Shores 1996，第46–47頁.
  30. ^ Gill 1957，第206頁.
  31. ^ Stewart 2016，第77頁.
  32. ^ Stewart 2016，第79頁.
  33. ^ 33.0 33.1 Stewart 2016，第81頁.
  34. ^ Playfair et al. 1959，第175頁.
  35. ^ Mackenzie 1951，第22頁；Playfair et al. 1959，第175–176頁.
  36. ^ 36.0 36.1 Shores 1996，第48頁.
  37. ^ 37.0 37.1 37.2 Playfair et al. 1959，第176頁.
  38. ^ Shores 1996，第49–51頁.
  39. ^ 39.0 39.1 39.2 Shores 1996，第51–52頁.
  40. ^ Raugh 1993，第76–82頁.
  41. ^ Playfair et al. 1959，第176–177頁.
  42. ^ 42.0 42.1 42.2 Playfair et al. 1959，第177頁.
  43. ^ 43.0 43.1 43.2 Shores 1996，第53頁.
  44. ^ Shores 1996，第53–54頁.
  45. ^ TAC 1942，第19頁.
  46. ^ Collins 1964，第39–40頁.
  47. ^ 47.0 47.1 Gill 1957，第205–206頁.
  48. ^ 48.0 48.1 48.2 48.3 Shores 1996，第54頁.
  49. ^ Semaphore 2010.
  50. ^ Red Sea Naval War. Warfare History Network. 2016-07-05 [2021-06-29]. 
  51. ^ Stewart 2016，第87, 263頁.
  52. ^ Rovighi 1988，第138頁.
  53. ^ 53.0 53.1 Mockler 1984，第245–249頁.
  54. ^ Playfair et al. 1959，第179頁.
  55. ^ Stewart 2016，第87頁.
  56. ^ 56.0 56.1 Raugh 1993，第82–83頁.
  57. ^ Stewart 2016，第93頁.
  58. ^ Stewart 2016，第93–94頁.
  59. ^ Playfair et al. 1959，第178–179頁.
  60. ^ Maravigna 1949，第453頁；Rovighi 1988，第188頁.
  61. ^ Raugh 1993，第82頁.
  62. ^ Molinari 2007，第117頁.
  63. ^ Playfair et al. 1959，第417頁；Rohwer & Hümmelchen 1992，第54頁.
  64. ^ Playfair et al. 1959，第418頁.

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  • Mackenzie, Compton. Eastern Epic: September 1939 – March 1943 Defence I. London: Chatto & Windus. 1951. OCLC 59637091. 
  • Maravigna, General Pietro. Come abbiamo perduto la guerra in Africa. Le nostre prime colonie in Africa. Il conflitto mondiale e le operazioni in Africa Orientale e in Libia [How We Lost the War in Africa: Our First Colonies in Africa, the World Conflict and Operations in East Africa and Libya]. Roma: Tosi. 1949. OCLC 643646990 （意大利语）. 
  • Mockler, Anthony. Haile Selassie's War: The Italian−Ethiopian Campaign, 1935–1941. New York: Random House. 1984. ISBN 978-0-394-54222-5. 
  • Molinari, Andrea. La conquista dell'Impero, 1935–1941: La guerra in Africa Orientale [The conquest of the Empire, 1935–1941: The War in East Africa]. Collana Saggi storici/Historical essays series. Milan: Hobby & Work. 2007. ISBN 978-88-7851-514-7 （意大利语）. 
  • Omar, Mohamed. The Scramble in the Horn of Africa: History of Somalia, 1827–1977. Mogadishu: Somali Publications. 2001. ISBN 978-1-874209-63-8. 
  • Playfair, I. S. O.; Stitt, G. M. S.; Molony, C. J. C.; Toomer, S. E. Butler, J. R. M. , 编. The Mediterranean and Middle East: The Early Successes Against Italy (to May 1941). History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series I 3rd. HMSO. 1959 [1954] [3 September 2015]. OCLC 494123451. 
  • Raugh, H. E. Wavell in the Middle East, 1939–1941: A Study in Generalship. London: Brassey's UK. 1993. ISBN 978-0-08-040983-2. 
  • Rohwer, Jürgen; Hümmelchen, Gerhard. Chronik des Seekrieges 1939–1945: Hrsg. vom Arbeitskreis für Wehrforschung und von der Bibliothek für Zeitgeschichte [Chronology of the War at Sea, 1939–1945: From the Working Group for Military Research and from the Library for Contemporary History]. G. Stalling 2nd trans. Oldenburg: Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, MD. 1992 [1968]. ISBN 978-1-55750-105-9 （德语）. 
  • Rovighi, Alberto. Le Operazioni in Africa Orientale: (giugno 1940 – novembre 1941) [Operations in East Africa: (June 1940 – November 1941)]. Roma: Stato Maggiore Esercito, Ufficio storico. 1988 [1952]. OCLC 848471066 （意大利语）. 
  • Shores, Christopher. Dust Clouds in the Middle East: The Air War for East Africa, Iran, Syria, Iran and Madagascar, 1940–42. London: Grub Street. 1996. ISBN 978-1-898697-37-4. 
  • Stewart, A. The First Victory: The Second World War and the East Africa Campaign 1st. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 2016. ISBN 978-0-300-20855-9. 
  • The Abyssinian Campaigns: The Official Story of the Conquest of Italian East Africa. Army at War. London: Issued for the War Office by the Ministry of Information (HMSO). 1942. OCLC 894319. 

延伸閱讀

  • Abdisalam, Mohamed Issa-Salwe. The Collapse of the Somali State: The Impact of the Colonial Legacy. London: Haan Associates. 1996. ISBN 978-1-87420-991-1. 
  • Antonicelli, Franco. Trent'anni di storia italiana 1915–1945: dall'antifascismo alla Resistenza: lezioni con testimonianze [Thirty Years of Italian History 1915–1945: From Antifascism to Resistance: Lessons with Testimonials]. Saggi. Torino: Einaudi. 1961. OCLC 828603112 （意大利语）.  |issue=被忽略 (帮助)
  • Ball, S. The Bitter Sea: The Struggle for Mastery in the Mediterranean 1935–1949 1st. London: HarperPress. 2009. ISBN 978-0-00-720304-8. 
  • Del Boca, Angelo. Italiani in Africa Orientale: La caduta dell'Impero [The Italians in East Africa, the fall of the Empire]. Roma-Bari: Laterza. 1986. ISBN 978-88-420-2810-9 （意大利语）. 
  • Ferrara, Orazio. La battaglia di Tug Argan Pass (La conquista del Somaliland britannico) [The Battle of Tug Argan Pass (The Conquest of British Somaliland)]. Eserciti Nella Storia (Anno VI) (Parma: Delta). 2005, (32). ISSN 1591-3031 （意大利语）. 
  • Jackson, Ashley. The British Empire and the Second World War. London: Hambledon Continuum. 2006. ISBN 978-1-85285-517-8. 
  • Mockler, A. Haile Selassie's War 2nd. pbk. Grafton Books [Collins], London. London: Oxford University Press. 1987 [1984]. ISBN 0-586-07204-7. 
  • Moyse-Bartlett, H. The King's African Rifles: A Study in the Military History of East and Central Africa, 1890–1945 II 2nd pbk. repr. Naval & Military Press, Uckfield. Aldershot: Gale & Polden. 2002 [1956]. OCLC 604161828. 
  • Newton, R. D. The RAF and Tribal Control: Airpower and Irregular Warfare between the World Wars. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. 2019. ISBN 978-0-70-062871-1. 
  • Official History of the Operations in Somaliland, 1901–04 I online. London: Harrison and Sons for HMSO War Office, General Staff. 1907 [6 September 2017]. OCLC 903224942. 
  • Official History of the Operations in Somaliland, 1901–04 II online. London: Harrison and Sons for HMSO War Office, General Staff. 1907 [6 September 2017]. OCLC 915556896. 
  • Rovighi, Alberto. Le Operazioni in Africa Orientale: (giugno 1940 – novembre 1941) Narrazione Parte Prima [Operations in East Africa (June 1940 – November 1941) Narration Part One] I 2nd. Roma: Stato Maggiore Esercito, Ufficio storico. 1995 [1952]. OCLC 956084252 （意大利语）. 
  • Sobski, Marek. East Africa 1940–1941 (land campaign): The Italian Army Defends the Empire in the Horn of Africa. Mussolini's War I. 由Basarabowicz, Tomasz翻译. Zielona Gora. 2020. ISBN 979-8-57-786912-0. 
  • Wavell, A. Operations in the Somaliland Protectorate, 1939–1940 (Appendix A – G. M. R. Reid and A. R. Godwin-Austen). London Gazette (37594) (London). 4 June 1946: 2719–2727. OCLC 265544298. 

外部連結

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