User:Penal/義大利有關沙盒

维基百科，自由的百科全书

這是User:Penal的沙盒，目前書未到手，義大利資料很不足，所以資源回收，改做泛用沙盒

下面是法文維基邊疆伯爵內容

Le titre de margrave était donné aux chefs militaires des marches, dans l'empire carolingien, puis à certains princes du Saint Empire romain germanique. Le titre équivalent est marquis. Le margraviat est la juridiction sur laquelle il a autorité.

Au Moyen Âge, un margrave (de l'allemand Markgraf, qui se traduit littéralement par "comte de la marche") était le gouverneur d’une marche (ou mark) carolingienne, c’est-à-dire d’une province frontalière. Comme les régions éloignées avaient tendance à avoir une grande importance pour les souverains qui en étaient éloignés et qu’elles étaient souvent très grandes, les margraves avaient des pouvoirs plus étendus que les nobles qui administraient des provinces plus centrales.

La plupart des marches, et donc des margraves, se trouvaient sur la frontière orientale de l’empire carolingien, et plus tard sur la bordure du Saint Empire romain germanique (p.ex. dans l'ouest sur l'Escaut, la marche de Valenciennes).

La marche d’Espagne constitue une exception. Elle était située à la frontière avec le monde musulman (Gothie) et correspondait à ce qui est aujourd’hui la Catalogne.

En Europe centrale, les margraviats les plus importants étaient la marche de Brandebourg et le territoire original de l’Autriche (qui correspond à l’actuelle Basse Autriche), qui en latin était appelé Marchia Orientalis, ce qui peut se traduire par la « région frontalière orientale ». À noter qu’aux Template:XIXe s et e, ce nom était parfois traduit en Ostmark, mais les documents médiévaux rédigés dans la langue vernaculaire ne mentionnent que le nom de Ostarrichi. À l’époque, l’Autriche était un poste avancé du Saint Empire, à la frontière avec les Hongrois et les Slaves. Au sud-est, la Styrie, aujourd’hui encore appelée Steiermark en allemand, était une autre marche importante.

Marggrabova est un exemple typique de ville des marches de l’est. Elle se trouvait en Prusse orientale et doit son nom au margrave Albert Ier de Brandebourg (aujourd’hui, cette ville est située en Pologne et a été rebaptisée Olecko).

Avec le temps, le titre de margrave est devenu héréditaire.

Parmi les oeuvres de fiction, on trouve dans l'ouvrage de Jean Raspail "Sept cavaliers quittèrent la ville au crépuscule par la porte de l'Ouest qui n'était plus gardée" un margrave héréditaire, Son Altesse Sérénissime Welf III.

下面是英文維基邊疆伯爵內容

Margrave (Latin: marchio) is the English and French form (recorded since 1551) of the German title Markgraf (from Mark "march" and Graf "count") and certain equivalent nobiliary ("princely") titles in other languages. The wife of a margrave is called a margravine or in German Markgräfin.

History

A Markgraf, or margrave, originally functioned as the military governor of a Carolingian mark, a medieval border province. A margrave had jurisdiction over a march (German Mark), which also become known, after his title, as a margraviate or margravate, strictly speaking the correct word for his office. As outlying areas tended to have great importance to the central realms of kings and princes, and they often became larger than those nearer the interior, margraves assumed quite inordinate powers over those of other counts of a realm.

Most Marks and, consequently, their margraves had their base on the Eastern border of the Carolingian and later Holy Roman Empire; the Breton Mark on the Atlantic and the border of peninsular Britanny, and the Spanish Mark on the Muslim frontier, including what is now Catalonia, are notable exceptions.

In the modern Holy Roman Empire, two original marches developed into the two most powerful states in Central Europe: the Mark Brandenburg (the nucleus of the later Kingdom of Prussia) and Austria (which became heir to various, mainly 'Hungarian' and 'Burgundian' principalities). Austria was originally called Marchia Orientalis in Latin, the "eastern borderland", as (originally roughly the present Lower -) Austria formed the eastern outpost of the Holy Roman Empire, on the border with the Magyars and the Slavs. During the 19th and 20th centuries the term was sometimes translated as Ostmark by some Germanophones, but medieval documents attest only the vernacular name Ostarrîchi. Another Mark in the south-east, Styria, still appears as Steiermark in German today.

In the late Middle Ages, as marches lost their military importance, margraviates developed into hereditary monarchies, comparable in all but name to duchies. A unique case was the Golden Bull of 1356 (issued by Charles IV, the Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia), recognizing the Margrave of Brandenburg as an elector of the Holy Roman Empire, membership of the highest college within the Imperial diet carrying the politically significant privilege of being the sole electors of the non-hereditary Emperor, which was previously de facto restricted to dukes and three prince-archbishops (Cologne, Mainz and Trier); other non-ducal lay members would be the King of Bohemia and the Palatine of the Rhenish Kurpfalz. The King of Bohemia himself ruled over the Margravate of Moravia or appointed a Margrave to that post.

As the title of margrave lost its military connotation, it became more and more used as a mere 'peerage' rank (higher than any Graf (count and peculiar comital compound titles such as Landgraf, Gefursteter Graf and Reichsgraf) but lower than a Herzog i.e. duke). At the end of the monarchies in Germany, Italy and Austria, not a single margraviate remained, since they all had been raised to higher titles.

The etymological heir of the margrave, also introduced in countries that never had any margraviates, the marquess (see that article; their languages may use one or two words, e.g. French margrave and marquis), still ranks in the British peerage between duke and earl (equivalent to a continental count).

Margravial titles in various European languages

Languages with a specific title for the margrave (distinct from the later marquess, for which all have a word, if different given in parentheses) include (but often no actual marches existed there, so it only refers to foreign cases) :

Furthermore

  • The late-medieval commanders, fiefholders, of Viipuri castle in Finland, the bulwark of the then Swedish realm, at the border against Novgorod/Russia, did in practice function as margraves having feudal privileges and keeping all the crown's incomes from the fief to use for the defense of the realm's eastern border. Its fiefholders were (almost always) descended from, or married to, the noble family of Baat from Småland in Sweden.
  • The German word "Mark" also has other meanings than the margrave's territorial border area, often with a territorial component, which occur far more numerously then margraviates; so its occurrence in composite placenames does not imply whether it was part of a 'margraviate' as such, although 'margrave', or Markgraf, translates as the "count of the marches", originally ruling an area on the border or outlying area of a larger feudal state. Uses of "Mark" in German names are commonly more local, as in the context of a Markgenossenschaft, which means a partially self-governing association of agricultural users of an area; the German name-component Mark can also be a truncated form of Markt 'market', as in the small town of Marksuhl in the Eisenach area of Thuringia, meaning 'market town on the river Suhl'. The non-margravial origin even applies to the County of Mark and the country of Denmark (meaning 'march of the Danes', in the sense of border area, yet never under a Margrave but the Danish national kingdom, outside the Holy Roman Empire).

下面是日文維基邊疆伯爵內容

辺境伯（ドイツ語: Markgraf）は、ヨーロッパにおける貴族の称号の一種。

元来はフランク王国が、国境付近に防備の必要上置いた軍事地区（マルク（Mark）。辺境地区、辺境伯領）の指揮官として設けられた地方長官の名称である。異民族と接しているため、他の地方長官よりも広大な領域と大きな権限が与えられており、一般の地方長官である伯（Graf、count）よりも高い地位にある役職とみなされていた。

フランク王国から後の時代ではイングランドではケルト地域（スコットランドやウェールズ）との国境、フランスではイスラム教徒と接するスペイン、ドイツではハンガリー（マジャール人）と接するオーストリア、スラブ人と接するブランデンブルクにおかれた。

時代が下ると、この称号の保有者は、公（Herzog、duc）や伯と同様に世襲の封建諸侯に転化し、諸侯の爵位称号の一種となる。フランスなどドイツ地方以外の諸国では伯のうち実力のあるものが伯よりも格式の高い称号としてMarkgrafを起源とするmarquisを名乗るようになり、この称号は公と伯の中間にある爵位とみなされるようになった。日本語では侯爵と訳されている。

一方ドイツでは、オーストリアやブランデンブルクの辺境伯は辺境地方において勢力を拡大し、有力な領邦君主に成長するに至った。オーストリア辺境伯領はオーストリア大公国の前身となり、ブランデンブルク辺境伯領はプロイセン公国と同君連合してのちにプロイセン王国となる。これらドイツの辺境伯の称号は、英語で辺境伯をmargraveというように、ドイツ以外の地域で使われる同一語源の称号marquisとは区別されており、日本語でも辺境伯の語が定訳となっている。

取自“https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Penal/義大利有關沙盒&oldid=5412042”