兩棲動物
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兩棲綱![]() 化石時期:泥盆紀晚期至今,
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左上:葉綠樹蛙;右上:西蒙螈; 左下:綠紅東美螈;右下:墨西哥蚓螈 | |
科學分類 ![]() | |
界: | 動物界 Animalia |
門: | 脊索動物門 Chordata |
演化支: | 希望螈類 Elpistostegalia |
演化支: | 堅頭類 Stegocephalia |
總綱: | 四足總綱 Tetrapoda |
演化支: | 蛙形類 Batrachomorpha |
綱: | 兩棲綱 Amphibia Gray, 1825[1] |
下級級分類 | |
兩棲動物是一種變溫、卵生、營水陸兩棲的肉食性四足類脊椎動物(部分類群四足退化),在生物分類學上構成名為兩棲綱(學名:Amphibia)的分類單元。特徵為表皮裸露,無鱗甲、毛羽等覆蓋,皮膚通過分泌粘液以保持身體濕潤;四足有趾而無爪。所產的卵缺乏卵殼保濕,因此需產在水中。幼體出生後必須在水中生活,用鰓呼吸,成年後可在陸地上生活,用肺和皮膚呼吸,主要捕食小型無脊椎動物。
演化
兩棲動物相信起源於泥盆紀晚期,於石炭紀爆發[2][3][4]:87。傳統的分類學觀點中,將兩棲動物化石分為三個亞綱,分別是[5]:迷齒亞綱(labyrinthodontia)[2]:87、殼椎亞綱及滑體亞綱。 近年認為殼椎亞綱是與羊膜動物有關或是其的祖先[6],即牠們是已滅絕(但不包括羊膜動物)的多系分類[7],或是一個非常接近羊膜動物祖先(非兩棲類)的單系群[8]。
兩棲動物由泥盆紀晚期的肉鰭魚類演化而來,是四足類動物從水棲發展到陸棲的中間過渡類型,進化程度介於高等魚類和羊膜動物之間。早期兩棲動物在石炭紀繁盛一時,分化出許多大型種類,為淡水和陸地上的頂級捕食者,但由於食性較為單一,且對各種水體的適應性不及魚類,陸地生存能力又遜於後起的羊膜動物,自中生代以來兩棲動物逐漸衰落,至今大部分種類都已滅絕。現存的兩棲動物均屬於滑體亞綱,多數體型較小,包括青蛙、蟾蜍(蛤蟆)、蠑螈、大鯢(娃娃魚)等,共計約8000種,已描述7000餘種,在脊椎動物中仍屬大類,物種多樣性僅次於輻鰭魚類和羊膜動物。其在交配後,能產卵400餘枚,數量驚人。
傳統的分類體系中,除羊膜動物外的所有四足類動物都歸為兩棲綱,在此定義下部份兩棲動物為羊膜動物的祖先。然而,各類羊膜動物(合弓綱和蜥形綱)獨立於兩棲綱之外,使得傳統的兩棲綱成為並系群(即缺少部分演化支,未囊括所有後代),因此現行分類縮小了兩棲綱的涵蓋範圍,僅限於四足總綱下蛙形類的一支,與羊膜動物所屬的爬行形類分為兩支,互不相關,切斷了傳統分類中兩棲動物與羊膜動物的演化關係,這一新的定義使部份早期四足類動物不再隸屬兩棲動物。
下級分類
- 兩棲綱
(註:† 表示已滅絕)
史前類群殼椎亞綱(Lepospondyli)也曾被歸類於此,但實際上這一演化支更接近羊膜動物,屬於爬行形類。
生理構造
循環系統
心臟:兩心房,一心室
消化系統
大部分兩棲動物都能透過彈出口腔內可伸展的舌頭去捕捉獵物,其帶有黏性的舌尖能很好的黏著獵物並將其帶回口中,而無須動用顎骨半分。一些物種會以慣性去協助它們吞嚥,它們會反覆將頭部快速伸前以製造推力,從而令慣性將獵物吞進食道中。由於大部分的兩棲動物都不會咀嚼獵物,而是整支的吞進食道中,因此它們多有一個特別大的胃部,嘔吐的時候則會直接將胃吐出。不長的食道內部有纖毛協助將食物推往胃中,口腔內及咽喉中的腺體亦會分泌黏液去平滑食道。胃部則會透過分泌幾丁質酶(Chitinase)去消化節肢動物的幾丁質外殼。[9]
生長繁殖
兩棲動物繁殖時候需要水,因為它們的卵要生在水裡。剛從卵裡出來的幼體形態似魚(如蝌蚪)用鰓呼吸,有側線,依靠尾鰭游泳。然後經變態才能上陸生活。一般來說,它們最後會離開水,但是並非所有兩棲動物都是這樣。它們成長過程中最明顯的是長出四條腿來在陸地上行走,另外還有:
- 身體分為頭、軀幹、尾和四肢四部分;
- 魚鰓改為別的呼吸器,如肺;
- 皮膚變為可以交換氣體的器官;
- 眼睛加了活動性眼瞼,下眼瞼連有瞬膜(但某些鯊魚已有瞬膜);
- 在蛙蟾類的眼後常有一圓形鼓膜覆蓋在中耳(或稱鼓室)外壁,內接耳柱骨,並出現耳咽管。
食性
兩棲動物都是食肉的,一般以蠕蟲、蜘蛛和昆蟲為食。較大一點的兩棲動物還以小的爬行動物、哺乳動物甚至螃蟹為食物。
防衛機制
兩棲動物擁有柔軟的身體及薄的皮膚,既沒有爪,也沒有防禦性的硬甲或刺狀物,令它們有沒有防衛機制的錯覺。但事實上牠們卻演化出不同的防衛機制去保護自己。蠑螈及青蛙的第一道防線為牠們所製造的粘液分泌。這令牠們的皮膚濕潤並且難於捕捉。這些分泌物除了黏稠外,亦有難吃的味道,甚至帶有毒性。[10]有觀察紀錄發現蛇在吞食非洲爪蟾時被逼張大嘴巴,從而讓青蛙有逃走的機會。[11]有關蚓螈在這方面的所知甚少,但已知扁尾盲游蚓螈(Typhlonectes compressicauda)在巴西進行的一項實驗中此種的毒素能殺死獵食牠的魚類。[12]部分的蠑螈的皮膚是有毒的。在北美洲生活的粗皮漬螈(Taricha granulosa)及其同屬物種均能製造出強力的神經毒素——河豚毒素,這種為已知非蛋白質最毒的物質。在測試中,魚類、青蛙、爬蟲類、鳥類及哺乳類動物均對其無招架之力。[13][14]唯一已知的獵食者為束帶蛇(Thamnophis sirtalis)。當在與粗皮漬螈共同生活的地方出現的束帶蛇族落是少數能抵受這種毒性的生物。牠們因基因突變去改變牠們的免疫系統而適應了這種毒性,使牠們能以粗皮漬螈為食而不受到任何傷害。[15]這種關係構成牠們之間的共同演化。當束帶蛇演化出更好的防禦能力後,粗皮漬螈也會加強牠們的毒素去抵抗。諸如此類獵物與捕食者間不斷精進毒素與抗毒能力的共演化現象被視為「軍備競賽」,使雙方不斷演化出更毒之毒素及更強之解毒能力。這種互相施加演化壓力而改變彼此演化方向的現象固然為共演化的範例。[14]部分青蛙與蟾蜍也是有毒的,而牠們的藏毒腺體多在頸的兩側及背部的疣上。這些區域都是顯而易見,以向攻擊者表示警號。此外這些分泌物亦會帶來特別的氣味或引起不同的物理及神經方面的症狀。在極少量已被研究的兩棲動物中,已分離了超過200種不同的有毒物質。[16]
有毒物種多以鮮艷的顏色去警告捕獵者。這些顏色多為紅色或黃色配以黑色,例如火蠑螈就是明顯的例子。一旦獵食者曾嚐過一口這些物種,牠們就會牢牢記著這些顏色的物種並不可口。一些物種的警告色長在腹部上,如鈴蟾屬的物種。因此牠們在遇到攻擊時反而會將腹部朝上,並分泌毒液以趕退敵人。並有一些物種本身沒有毒性,如紅背異箭毒蛙,就會模擬在其地域中有毒的物種的膚色以嚇退獵食者。[17]
不少兩生動物都是夜行性並於日間隱藏起來,以避開日間捕食的物種。其他兩棲動物則善用不同的偽裝避免被發現。這些物種多有斑駁的棕色、灰色或橄欖色等以混和於背景中。一些蠑螈在面對獵食者會有獨特的反捕行為。一項以北短尾鼩鼱(Blarina brevicauda)及不同的蠑螈所作的測試中,發現不少蠑螈會在面對獵食者時會不斷翻騰身體,並會高舉或拍打尾巴,使獵食者在獵食時無可避免地接觸到牠們皮膚上製毒的腺體。[18]另一為人所知的防衛機制為自割尾巴以便逃脫。有研究指尾巴有獨特的結構以便它們在危難時被移離身體。一般而言被自割的尾巴都能夠再生,但所需的能量不菲。[19] 一些青蛙及蟾蜍則透過吸入大量空氣令身體膨脹,使牠們的外觀變得巨大及兇猛起來,一些鋤足蟾甚至會發出叫聲並主動跳向攻擊者。[20]大鯢、角花蟾亞科(Ceratophryinae)物種及箱頭蛙屬(Pyxicephalus)的物種都有尖銳的牙齒,並能在防制性的咬擊中令對手流血受傷。分佈於美國的黑腹脊口螈(Desmognathus quadramaculatus)就能夠對攻擊牠們的束帶蛇造成牠們身體兩至三倍大小的傷口,並且常能在掙扎中離開險境。[21]
-
海蟾蜍(Bufo marinus)的眼後有毒囊。
下屬分類
本綱包括以下目:
- 目的地位未定的科:
- Acanthostegidae
- Acherontiscidae
- Adelogyrinidae
- Allophyrnidae
- Almasauridae
- 兩棲螈科 Amphibamidae
- 真齒蛙科 Amphignathodontidae
- Anthracosauridae
- 先驅螈科 Archegosauridae
- Archeriidae
- Asterophrydidae
- Baphetidae
- Batrachiderpetontidae
- Batrachophrynidae
- Benthosuchidae
- Angusaurus Getmanov, 1989
- Gondwanosaurus Lydekker, 1885
- Kwatisuchus
- Kwatisuchus rosai Pinheiro, Eltink, Paes-Neto, Machado, Simões & Pierce, 2024[23]
- Odenwaldia Morales & Kamphausen, 1984
- Pachygonia Huxley, 1865
- Qantas Novikov, 2012
- Syrtosuchus Novikov, 2016
- Thoosuchus Efremov, 1940
- Volgosuchus Efremov, 1940
- Vyborosaurus Novikov, 1990
- Brachyopidae
- Brachystelechidae
- Branchiosauridae
- Bystrowianidae
- Caerorhachidae
- Capitosauridae
- Capitosauroides Haubold, 1971
- Capitosaurus Münster, 1836
- Capitosaurus robustus (Meyer & Plieninger, 1844)
- Cyclotosaurus Fraas, 1889
- Cyclotosaurus buechneri Witzmann, Sachs & Nyhuis, 2016
- Cyclotosaurus ebrachensis Kuhn, 1932
- Cyclotosaurus hemprichi (Kuhn, 1942)
- Cyclotosaurus intermedius Sulej & Majer, 2005
- Cyclotosaurus naraserluki Marzola, Mateus, Shubin & Clemmensen, 2017[24]
- Cyclotosaurus papilio Wepfer, 1913
- Cyclotosaurus posthumus Fraas, 1913
- Paracyclotosaurus Watson, 1958
- Parotosaurus Jaekel, 1922
- Ceratophrynidae
- Chigutisauridae
- Chroniosuchidae
- Cochleosauridae
- Cocytinidae
- Colosteidae
- Colostethidae
- Crassigyrinidae
- Cricotidae
- Cyclotosauridae
- Cystignathidae
- Dactylethridae
- Deltacephalidae
- Dendrerpetontidae
- Dendrophryniscidae
- Derwentiidae
- Diadectidae
- Diplocaulidae
- Discosauriscidae
- Dissorophidae
- Dvinosauridae
- Dwinasauridae
- Dyscophidae
- Edopidae
- Engystomidae
- Enosuchidae
- Eobrachyopidae
- Eogyrinidae
- Eoherpetontidae
- Epicria
- Eryopidae
- Eryosuchidae
- Eugyrinidae
- Gephyrostegidae
- Gymnarthridae
- Hapsidopareiidae
- Hapsidopareiontidae
- Hemisidae
- Heylerosauridae
- Hylonomidae
- Hyloplesiontidae
- Ichthyostegidae
- Indobrachyopidae
- Intasuchidae
- Keraterpetontidae
- Konzhukoviidae
- Kotlassiidae
- Kourerpetidae
- Laidleriidae
- Lapillopsidae
- Latiscopidae
- Leptorophidae
- Lethiscidae
- Limnoscelididae
- Liopelmidae
- Lydekkerinidae
- Lyrocephaliscidae
- Lysipterygiidae
- Mastodonsauridae
- Melosauridae
- Metoposauridae
- Microbrachidae
- Micromelerpetontidae
- Micropholidae
- Molgophidae
- Nycteroleteridae
- Odonterpetontidae
- Ophiderpetontidae
- Ostodolepidae
- Otocratiidae
- Pantylidae
- Paracyclotosauridae
- Parioxyidae
- Parotosuchidae
- Peltobatrachidae
- Phlegethontiidae
- Pholidogasteridae
- Phryniscidae
- 斜橫螈科 Plagiosauridae
- Platystegidae
- Proterogyrinidae
- Protobatrachidae
- Protritonidae
- Pseudophlegethontiidae
- Ptyoniidae
- Rhinesuchidae
- Rhynchonkidae
- Rhytidosteidae
- Sauropleuridae
- Scincosauridae
- Sclerocephalidae
- Sclerothoracidae
- Seymouriidae
- Solenodonsauridae
- Thoosuchidae
- Tokosauridae
- Trematopidae
- Trematopsidae
- Trematosauridae
- Trihecatontidae
- Trimerorhachidae
- Tseajaiidae
- Tuditanidae
- Tulerpetontidae
- Tupilakosauridae
- Uranocentrodontidae
- Urocordylidae
- Urodela
- Waggoneriidae
- Wetlugasauridae
- Whatcheeriidae
- Yarengiidae
- Zatrachydidae
- 目和科的地位未定的屬:
- Abiadisaurus Warren, Yates, Damiani, Goodwin, Wood & Schaff, 1998
- Acanthostoma Credner, 1883
- Actibates Jardine, 1853
- Acutipes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963
- Adenoderma Fritsch, 1877
- Agostopus Gilmore, 1926
- Allopus Marsh, 1894
- Altenglanerpeton Glienke, 2012
- Amblyodon Dawson, 1882
- Amblyopoditta Strand, 1935
- Amblyopus Gilmore, 1927
- Ammobatrachus Gilmore, 1928
- Amphibiopodiscus Ellenberger, 1970
- Amphibiopus Ellenberger, 1970
- Amphicoelosaurus Barkas, 1873
- Amphisauroides Haubold, 1970
- Amphisauropus Haubold, 1970
- 近蜥龍屬 Amphisaurus Barkas, 1870
- Ancudia Philippi, 1902
- Ancylopus Carman, 1928
- Anisopus Owen, 1842
- Anomoeichnus Carman, 1928
- Antarctosuchus Sidor, Steyer & Hammer, 2014
- Anthichnium Nopcsa, 1923
- Anthracobamus Werneburg, 2019
- Anthracopus Lorenz, 1879
- Anthrakerpeton Owen, 1865
- Aquiloniferus Bjerring, 1999
- Arachana Piñeiro, Ramos & Marsicano, 2012
- Archaeoovulus Capasso, Pallizzi, Milia & D'Anastasio, 2013
- Arethusa Bonaparte, 1838
- Arethusa Duméril & Bibron, 1841
- Arizonerpeton Thayer, 1985
- Arotus Cope, 1877
- Asaphestera Steen, 1934
- Asperipes Matthew, 1903
- Atopotera Steen, 1934
- Austropelor Longman, 1941
- Axolotes Owen, 1844
- Barillopus Matthew, 1903
- Baropezia Matthew, 1903
- Baropus Marsh, 1894
- Barypodus Gilmore, 1926
- Bathysiredon Taylor, 1940
- Batrachichnus Woodworth, 1900
- Batrachocephalus Fric, 1876
- Batrachopodiscus Ellenberger, 1972
- Batrachosaurus Fitzinger, 1843
- Batrachosaurus Owen, 1876
- Batrichnis Harkness, 1851
- Benthosaurus Efremov, 1929
- Benthosuchus Efremov, 1936
- Bermanerpeton Werneburg, Schneider & Lucas, 2021
- Biarmica Ivachnenko, 1987
- Bissektia Nessov, 1981
- 鈴蟾屬 Bombina Tian & Hu, 1985
- Borborophagus Branson & Mehl, 1929
- Brachystelechus Carroll & Gaskill, 1978
- Bradyarges Gistl, 1868
- 蟾蜍屬 Bufo Rösel von Rosenhof, 1758
- Calamita Merrem, 1820
- Calamite Schneider, 1799
- Calmasuchus Fortuny, Josep, Angel Galobart & Carles De Santisteban, 2011
- Calochelys Fritsch, 1879
- Capetus Steen, 1938
- Capulomala Warren, Damiani & Sengupta, 2009
- Ceratophryne Günther, 1858
- Chaparana Fei, Ye & Huang, 1990
- Chelidosaurus Fric, 1878
- Chigutisaurus Rusconi, 1948
- Chinlestegophis Pardo et al., 2017
- Chionopelas Tschudi, 1846
- Collettosaurus Cox, 1874
- Cordyloides Fritsch, 1904
- 環尾蜥屬 Cordylus Wagler, 1828
- Corvipes Hitchcock, 1858
- Cosmus d'Orbigny
- Cratopipa Carvalho et al., 2019
- Crenipes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963
- Crucipes Butts, 1891
- Cursipes Matthew, 1903
- Datheosaurus Schroeder, 1905
- Delphinosaurus Eichwald, 1853
- Dendryazousa Steen, 1934
- Desmodactylus Duméril & Bibron, 1854
- Devipes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963
- Diadetognathus Miall, 1874
- Dictyocephalus Leidy, 1857
- Diplopelturus Depéret, 1897
- Diplospondylus Lydekker, 1889
- Discodactylus Wagler, 1833
- 盤椎龍屬 Discosaurus Credner, 1883
- Diversipes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963
- Doryphorus Brocchi, 1881
- Doryphorus Mayer, 1835
- Dromillopus Lambe, 1904
- Dromopus Marsh, 1894
- Dryomelictes Cope, 1865
- Edingerella Schoch & Milner, 2000
- Eldeceeon Smiths, 1994
- Electrorana Xing et al., 2018
- Elophila Duméril & Bibron, 1841
- Eobatrachus Moodie, 1902
- Eosauravus Williston, 1910
- Eosaurus Marsh, 1862
- Eoserpeton Moodie, 1909
- Epicordylus Cope, 1878
- Epipolysemia Brame, 1973
- Episcopopus Ellenberger, 1970
- Erierpeton Moodie, 1913
- Erpetobrachium Moodie, 1913
- Erpetosaurus Cope, 1874
- Erpetosuchus Moodie, 1911
- Eryopides Douthitt, 1917
- Eryopsoides Douthitt, 1917
- Eryosuchus Ochev, 1966
- Eubates Steindachner, 1864
- Euchirosaurus Gaudry, 1879
- Eupalamopus Hay, 1902
- Eupleurodus Gürich, 1884
- Eurosaurus Kutorga, 1838
- Eurycervix von Huene, 1902
- Euryops Cope, 1884
- Eurythorax Cope, 1871
- Exobranchia Gray, 1850
- Foliipes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963
- Fritschia Dawson, 1882
- Genibatrachus Gao & Chen, 2017
- Gilmorella Strand, 1935
- Glanochthon Schoch & Witzmann, 2009
- Glossiphus Green, 1832
- Glyptognathus Lydekker, 1882
- Gnorhimosuchus Efremov, 1951
- Goniocara Hay, 1929
- Goniocephalus Broili, 1913
- Gracilichnium Haubold, 1970
- Grippiella Herre, 1949
- Gryphius Gistl, 1848
- Hadromophryne Hewitt, 1913
- Halobatrachus Hammer, 1987
- Heliarchon Meyer, 1860
- Hemibatrachus Fitzinger, 1843
- Hemichthys Fritsch, 1895
- Hemiprichisaurus Kuhn, 1939
- Hemprichisaurus Kuhn, 1939
- Hensonbatrachus Gardner & Brinkman, 2015
- Hercynosaurus Jaekel, 1914
- Herpetichnus Jardine, 1850
- Hesperopherpeton Peabody, 1958
- Heylerosaurus Shishkin, 1980
- Hiobates Steindachner, 1864
- Huskerpeton Huttenlocker, Pardo, Small & Anderson, 2013
- Hybridus Peracca, 1886
- Hydrospelaeus Leuckart, 1821
- Hylaemorphus Fitzinger, 1857
- Hyliola Mocquard, 1899
- Hyloidichnus Gilmore, 1927
- Hylophryne Steindachner, 1864
- Hylopus Dawson, 1895
- 海納螈屬 Hynerpeton Daeschler, Shubin, Thomson & Amaral, 1994
- Hyperodon Lichtenstein & Martens, 1856
- Hyphasma Cope, 1875
- Iberospondylus Laurin & Soler-Gijón, 2001
- Icanosaurus Rusconi, 1950
- Ichnium Pabst, 1896
- Ichthyerpeton Etheridge, 1866
- Iliobates Steindachner, 1867
- Joermungandr Mann, Calthorpe & Maddin, 2021
- Jugosuchus Riabinin, 1962
- Kalamoiketor Branson & Mehl, 1929
- Kirktonecta Clack, 2011
- Korkonterpeton Werneburg et al., 2020
- Koskinonodon Branson & Mehl, 1929
- Kryostega Sidor, Damiani & Hammer, 2008
- Kupferzellia Schoch, 1997
- Kuruleufenia Gómez, 2016
- Labyrinthodon Owen, 1841
- Lagunculapes Hitchcock, 1858
- Laosuchus Arbez, Sidor & Steyer, 2018
- Lasalia Vaughn, 1965
- Lehahichnus Ellenberger, 1970
- Leptognathosaurus Barkas, 1873
- Limnopus Marsh, 1894
- 滑螈屬 Lissotriton Gistl, 1868
- Lithobatrachus Parker, 1929
- Lonchorhynchus Wiman, 1910
- Lusor Steen, 1938
- Lutetiobatrachus Wuitke, 1988
- Lysorocephalus Huene & Bock, 1954
- Macromerium Lydekker, 1890
- Macrosaurus Barkas, 1873
- Macrothaelacion Wagler, 1833
- Marpurgichnium Schindewolf, 1928
- Mastocephalus van Hoepen, 1934
- Matthewichnus Haubold, 1970
- Megalerpeton Young, 1870
- Megapezia Matthew, 1903
- Memonomenos Steen, 1938
- Mentosaurus Roepke, 1930
- Merothaelacium Wagler, 1833
- Mesichnium Gilmore, 1926
- Meyerosuchus Ochev, 1966
- Micrarthroleptis Deckert, 1938
- Micrerpeton Moodie, 1909
- Micrichnium Abel, 1926
- Micropelobates Wettstein-Westersheimb, 1955
- Milneria Hunt, Lucas & Berman, 1996
- Moenkopisaurus Shishkin, 1960
- Mycetoglossus Bonaparte, 1839
- Mycetoides Duméril & Bibron, 1854
- Mynbulakia Nessov, 1981
- Mytaras Steen, 1931
- Nanipes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963
- Nanobamus Schoch & Milner, 2014
- Nanopus Marsh, 1894
- Nanospondylus Olson, 1965
- Nectura Rafinesque, 1820
- Notalacerta Butts, 1891
- Notamphibia Butts, 1891
- Notobatrachus Reig, 1956
- Novascoticus Carroll, 1966
- Octopodichnus Gilmore, 1927
- Odontosaurus Meyer, 1835
- Oestocephalus Cope, 1868
- Onyctopus Martin, 1922
- Ophiderpeton Fristch, 1879
- Opisthocoelellus Kuhn, 1941
- Ornithichnites King, 1845
- 蜥鳥盜龍屬 Ornithoides Matthew, 1903
- Orthopleurosaurus Lydekker, 1890
- Orthosauriscus Kuhn, 1933
- Orthosaurus Barkas, 1871
- Otilopha Gray, 1831
- Otuminisaurus Rusconi, 1948
- Palaeophrynos Tschudi, 1838
- Palaeopus Gilmore, 1926
- Palaeosalamandra Herre, 1949
- Palaeosalamandrina Herre, 1949
- Palaeosaurus Fitzinger, 1843
- Palaeosiren Geinitz, 1864
- Palaeostricha van Frank, 1955
- Palaeotriton Fitzinger, 1843
- Palatinerpeton Boy, 1996
- Paleohelcura Gilmore, 1926
- Paleotriton Bronn, 1838
- Palodromeus Schoch, Henrici & Hook, 2020
- Parabaropus Gilmore, 1927
- Paramicrobrachis Kuhn, 1960
- Pariostegus Cope, 1868
- Parotosuchus Ochev & Shishkin, 1968
- Parvipes Willard & Cleaves, 1930
- Pelion Cope, 1869
- Pelonectes Lataste, 1879
- Pelosaurus Credner, 1882
- Perryella Carlson, 1987
- Petrobates Credner, 1890
- Petrophryne Owen, 1876
- Phaenerobranchus Fitzinger, 1826
- Phrynoderma Boulenger, 1893
- Phrynophrys Bonaparte, 1839
- Phylhydrus Swainson, 1839
- Pithecopsis Duméril & Bibron, 1840
- Platosphus L'Isle, 1877
- 扁頭蛇屬 Platyceps Stephens, 1887
- Platyops Williston, 1918
- Platyrhincus Duméril & Bibron, 1841
- Platyrhynchus Leuckart, 1816
- Platytherium Barkas, 1873
- Pleuronoura Gaudry, 1879
- Pleuroptyx Cope, 1875
- Podonectes Steindachner, 1864
- Porierpeton Fritsch, 1885
- Potamochoston Steen, 1938
- Proamphibia Karpinskii, 1930
- Probatrachus Peters, 1877
- Promelanerpeton Kuhn, 1961
- Propelodytes Weitzel, 1938
- Protocordylus Hyrtl, 1865
- Protopelobates Bieber, 1880
- Protophrynus Pomel, 1853
- Protriton Boy, 1972
- Proxilodon Huttenlocker, Pardo, Small & Anderson, 2013
- Pseudarthroleptis Deckert, 1938
- Pseudobradypus Matthew, 1903
- Pseudopipa Ritgen, 1828
- Ptychosphenodon Seeley, 1907
- Puertollanopus Soler-Gijon & Moratalla, 2001
- Ranavus Portis, 1885
- Ranetta Geoffroy, 1767
- Raniceps Wyman, 1858
- Raphanodon Ivachnenko, 1987
- Rewanobatrachus Schoch & Milner, 2000
- Rhachitomus Cope, 1878
- Rhaphidochir Wagler, 1833
- Rhombopholis Fritsch, 1879
- Rileymillerus Bolt & Chatterjee, 2000
- Rubeta Fatio, 1872
- Ruecklinichnium Kuhn, 1958
- Saharastega Sidor, O'Keefe, Damiani, Steyer, Smith, Larsson, Sereno, Ide & Maga, 2005
- Saurichnium Gürich, 1926
- Sauropus Hitchcock, 1845
- Sauropus Lea, 1849
- Schmidtopus Haubold, 1970
- Scotobius Gistl, 1848
- Seelya Fritsch, 1883
- Serripes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963
- Silvanerpeton Clack, 1994
- Sparagmites Fritsch, 1885
- Spathicephalus D.M.S.Watson, 1929
- Sphagepodium Steindachner, 1864
- Sphenosaurus Meyer, 1847
- Steenisaurus Kuhn, 1938
- Stenichnus Gilmore, 1927
- Stephanopus Gand, 1975
- Stereorachis Gaudry, 1883
- Stremmeia Nopcsa, 1931
- Streptodontosaurus Barkas, 1873
- Strictipes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963
- Strombus Gray, 1830
- Syphonodon Seeley, 1908
- Tarsodactylus Hitchcock, 1858
- Temnocorpichnus Lucas, Fillmore & Simpson, 2010
- Termonerpeton Clack, Smithson & Ruta, 2022
- Tetrapodium Gürich, 1926
- Thaumastosaurus De Stefano, 1904
- Thenaropus King, 1844
- Thinopus Marsh, 1896
- Thyrsidium Cope, 1874
- Timanosaurus Gubin, 1993
- Timonya Cisneros, Marsicano, Angielczyk, Smith, Richter, Fröbisch, Kammerer & Sadleir, 2015
- Tischlieriella Herre, 1949
- Tomeia Eltink et al., 2017
- Torridorefugium Hembree, Hasiotis & Martin, 2005
- Trematopsis Olson, 1956
- Triaenopus Hitchcock, 1848
- Triavestigia Gilmore, 1927
- Tridactylosaurus Barkas, 1873
- Tridentichnus Gilmore, 1927
- Trypanognathus Schoch & Voigt, 2019
- Tyrrellbatrachus Gardner, 2015
- Ulanurus Gubin, 1991
- Urumqia Zhang, Li & Wan, 1984
- Utaherpeton Carroll, Bybee & Tidwell, 1991
- Varibatrachus Parmley et al., 2015
- Vladlenosaurus Morkovin & Novikov, 2000
- Voigtiella Herre, 1949
- Volgaosuchus Efremov, 1940
- Warrenisuchus Maganuco, Steyer, Pasini, Boulay, Lorrain, Bénéteau & Auditore, 2009
- Watsonisuchus Ochev, 1966
- Wealdenbatrachus Fey, 1988
- Westlothiana Smithson & Rolfe, 1990
參考文獻
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延伸閱讀
- Carroll, Robert L. Vertebrate Paleontology and Evolution. W. H. Freeman. 1988. ISBN 978-0-7167-1822-2.
- Carroll, Robert L. The Rise of Amphibians: 365 Million Years of Evolution. Johns Hopkins University Press. 2009. ISBN 978-0-8018-9140-3.
- Duellman, William E.; Linda Trueb. Biology of Amphibians. Johns Hopkins University Press. 1994. ISBN 978-0-8018-4780-6.
- Frost, Darrel R.; Grant, Taran; Faivovich, Julián; Bain, Raoul H.; Haas, Alexander; Haddad, Célio F.B.; De Sá, Rafael O.; Channing, Alan; Wilkinson, Mark; Donnellan, Stephen C.; Raxworthy, Christopher J.; Campbell, Jonathan A.; Blotto, Boris L.; Moler, Paul; Drewes, Robert C.; Nussbaum, Ronald A.; Lynch, John D.; Green, David M.; Wheeler, Ward C. The Amphibian Tree of Life. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 2006, 297: 1–291 [2021-01-22]. doi:10.1206/0003-0090(2006)297[0001:TATOL]2.0.CO;2. hdl:2246/5781. (原始內容存檔於2018-10-04).
- Pounds, J. Alan; Bustamante, Martín R.; Coloma, Luis A.; Consuegra, Jamie A.; Fogden, Michael P. L.; Foster, Pru N.; La Marca, Enrique; Masters, Karen L.; Merino-Viteri, Andrés; Puschendorf, Robert; Ron, Santiago R.; Sánchez-Azofeifa, G. Arturo; Still, Christopher J.; Young, Bruce E. Widespread amphibian extinctions from epidemic disease driven by global warming. Nature. 2006, 439 (7073): 161–167 [2021-01-22]. Bibcode:2006Natur.439..161A. PMID 16407945. doi:10.1038/nature04246. (原始內容存檔於2020-08-08).
- Stuart, Simon N.; Chanson, Janice S.; Cox, Neil A.; Young, Bruce E.; Rodrigues, Ana S. L.; Fischman, Debra L.; Waller, Robert W. Status and trends of amphibian declines and extinctions worldwide. Science. 2004, 306 (5702): 1783–1786. Bibcode:2004Sci...306.1783S. PMID 15486254. doi:10.1126/science.1103538.
- Stuart, S. N.; Hoffmann, M.; Chanson, J. S.; Cox, N. A.; Berridge, R. J.; Ramani, P.; Young, B. E. (編). Threatened Amphibians of the World. Lynx Edicions; IUCN-The World Conservation Union; Conservation International & NatureServe. 2008 [2014-10-30]. ISBN 978-84-96553-41-5. (原始內容存檔於2014-10-30).
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