越語支
越語支 | |
---|---|
地理分佈 | 東南亞 |
譜系學分類 | 南亞語系
|
原始語言 | 原始越芒語 |
分支 | |
– | |
Glottolog | viet1250[1] |
![]() 越語支 |
越語支(Vietic)是南亞語系的一個分支。此語支曾被稱為越芒語支、安南-芒語支及越南-芒語支。「越語支」之名於1992年由Hayes提出,他提議將「越芒語支」進行重新定義,成為越語支的一個分支,僅僅包含擁有越南語和芒語兩種語言。
許多越語支語言擁有聲調或喉音,這是漢語及侗台語的特徵,在越語支以外的其他南亞語系分支中所沒有的。
今日的越南語中包含漢語影響的特徵,尤其是詞彙及聲調系統。越南語詞彙中包含30%至60%的漢越詞,不包括來自中國的借譯。
起源
然而,越語支的起源仍是一個飽含爭議的話題。基於語言多樣性的理論認為越語支最可能的故鄉是在今日老撾波里坎塞省、甘蒙省及越南乂安省和廣平省部分地區。越語支的時間深度有2500-2000年(Chamberlain 1998)、3500年(Peiros 2004)、約3000年(Alves 2020)幾說。[5][6]:xix儘管如此,古基因學證明,遠在東山文化之前,紅河三角洲的住民就已經操南亞語系語言:逢元文化縵泊遺址(1800 BC)的主體基因與現代南亞語使用者的基本相似;[7][8]同時,東山文化𡶀納遺址的「混合基因」與「中國傣族、泰國壯侗語系語言使用者、越南南亞語系語言使用者,包括京族」有着密切聯繫;[9]因此,「越語支的擴張肯定是從紅河三角洲開始的。至於南部的高多樣性,則尚待其它假說。」[10]
越南語
越南語在19世紀中葉被識別為南亞語系語言。現代越南語丟失了許多原始南亞語音系、詞法特徵,還從漢語借來大量詞彙。然而認為越南語和高棉語比和漢語或傣族語更近的說法卻經久不衰。大多數語言學家認為這些語言類型學上的相似性不是因為有共同祖先,而是由語言接觸產生的。[11]
Chamberlain (1998)認為紅河三角洲地區本是傣語使用者聚居區,在7-9世紀間被從越南中部來的越語移民占據,這一地區也是今日最異相、最保守的中北部越南語方言分布地區。因此,越南語起源地也位於紅河以南。[12]
另一方面,Ferlus (2009)發現,東山文化特有的杵、槳和炒糯米用的鍋對應北部(越芒語)、中部越語(哲土語)的詞彙創新。這些新詞被證明是從原始動詞派生而來的,而不是借來的詞彙。北越語目前的分布也與東山文化的區域相對應。由此,Ferlus得出結論,北部越語是東山文化的直系後代,他們自公元前1千紀以來一直居住在紅河三角洲南部和越南中北部。[3]
John Phan (2013, 2016)[13][14]進一步宣稱,曾有過一種分布在紅河河谷的「中古安南漢語」,後來被同時共存的原始越芒語吸收,它的一種異相方言後來演化成越南語。ref>Phan, John. "Re-Imagining 'Annam': A New Analysis of Sino–Viet–Muong Linguistic Contact" in Chinese Southern Diaspora Studies, Volume 4, 2010. pp. 22-3</ref>中古安南漢語屬於中國西南中古漢語方言連續體的一部分,最終演化成瓦鄉話、賀州九都土話、南部平話和湘語。[14]Phan (2013)列出三類主要的漢越詞類型:
分布
越語支使用者分布在老撾部分地區和越南中北部(Chamberlain 1998)。許多人被分為芒族、茹廊族和源族。Chamberlain (1998)列出老撾境內越語支使用者居住地。[15]基於一首田野調查數據的概覽由Michel Ferlus主持編寫。[16]
- 源語:甘蒙省布拉帕縣Pak Phanang版
- Liha、Phong、Toum:波里坎塞省坎格縣;可能來自乂安省北部/坎格縣交界附近地區
- Ahoe:本居於甘蒙省納開縣Na Tane區和波里坎塞省坎格縣Na Va版;越南戰爭期間遷徙至甘蒙省欣本縣,後被安置在納開高原上的Nakai Tay(39戶)和Sop Hia(20戶)。
- 他文語(Ahao、Ahlao方言):Lak Xao附近幾個村莊;可能來自Na Heuang附近
- 哲語:甘蒙省布拉帕縣Na Phao版和Tha Sang;可能在Pha Song、Vang Nyao、Takaa亦有分布;從越南、Hin Nam No遷來
- Atel:Nam Sot的Tha Meuang(主要為麻楞族);來自Houay Kanil地區
- Thémarou:南屯河的Vang Chang;Nam Noy附近的Ban Soek
- Makang:波里坎塞省坎格縣Na Kadok(主要為Saek族);來自Sot上游地區
- 麻楞語:Nam Sot的Tha Meuang
- 「Salang」:甘蒙省布拉帕縣Xe Neua版
- Atop:波里坎塞省坎格縣Na Thone(主要為Tai Theng族);來自Sot上游地區
- Mlengbrou:鄰近Nam One;後來被重新安置至Ak山脈甘蒙省納馬拉膠縣一側,現在生活在納馬拉膠縣Sang版(主要Yooy族)
- 克里語:Maka版
在越南,部分越語支山地民族,如Arem、Rục、Maliêng、Mày(Cươi)族被安置到Cu Nhái(廣平省西部或河靜省香溪縣西南部)。越南也有冊族。
下表列出不同越語支族群的生活方式。不同於相鄰的傣語族群,許多越語支族群並不種水稻。
生活方式 | 越語支族群 |
---|---|
小群覓食游牧民族 | Atel、Thémarou、Mlengbrou、(哲語?) |
採獵貿易部落→新興臨時燒墾定居者 | Arao、麻楞語、Malang, Makang、Tơe、Ahoe、Phóng |
燒墾種植者,每2–3年在已有村落間移動 | 克里語 |
燒墾、水稻定居混合 | Ahao、Ahlao、Liha、Phong、Toum |
語言
越南語聲調與同一語系其他語言非聲調特徵的規則對應被認為是歷史語言學發展路上的一塊里程碑。[17]越語支的類型學特徵介於漢語、傣語和一般南亞語系語言之間,有着複雜的聲調、複雜的輔音系統、C(g)VC或CCVC音節結構、單音節或多音節-分析或黏着的語法特徵。[18][19]
- 阿楞語:缺乏越語支普遍的氣聲,但有聲門化的韻尾輔音。
- 土語: 老撾封語、越南土語
- 他文語:在韻尾展現出清與氣聲、無標記與聲門化的4重對立。這和比爾語支的情況很像,不過它的聲門化落在元音上。
- 哲語:方言連續體;有4個音區,與他文語調音方法互相對應
- 麻楞語:有一種他文語特色的4向音區系統。
- 越芒語:越南語和芒語,共享75%的基礎詞彙,都有5–6個聲調。與其他越語支語言規則對應:3對高低調對應祖語聲母濁音、清音(陰陽分調);平調對應開音節或鼻音結尾的音節;高升調和低降調對應塞音結尾的音節,後來消失;降調對應擦音結尾的音節,後來也消失了;聲門化塞音調對應以聲門化塞音結尾的音節,後來聲門化消失。
系屬分類
Sidwell (2021)
Paul Sidwell給出越語支如下系屬分類。越異質的分支越靠前。[20][21]
- 他文–麻令:克里語、麻楞語、麻令語、Ahao/Ahlao、他文語
- 哲語:阿楞語、冊方言、濁方言、眉方言
- 封–Liha(Pong–Toum[22]):Phong、Toum、Liha
- 土語:土語
- 越芒語:越南語、芒語、源語
他文-麻令群有着最古老的詞彙、音韻特徵,哲語*-r、*-l韻尾合流為*-l。[20]
Chamberlain (2018)
Chamberlain (2018:9)[23]將越語支稱作克里-門語,認為有門-土和儂-屯兩大支。
- 克里-門語支
- 門-土語群
- 儂-屯語群
Sidwell (2015)
基於Ferlus (1982, 1992, 1997, 2001)的比較研究和Phan (2012)對芒語的新研究,[24]Sidwell (2015)[25]指出,芒語實際上是個並系群,且是越南語內部的亞群。Sidwell (2015)的分類如下:
越語支
- 越芒語:越南語、Mường Muốt、Mường Nàbái、Mường Chỏi等
- Pong-Toum:Đan Lai、Hung、Toum、Cuôi等
- 哲語
- 東部:Mãliềng、麻楞語、阿楞語、克里語、哲語(Mày, Rụt, Sách, Mụ Già)等
- 西部:他文語、Pakatan等
Chamberlain (2003)
下列Chamberlain (2003:422)越語支語言分類方案來自Sidwell (2009:145)的引用。不同於過去的分類,其中包括第六個南支,含新發現的克里語。
動物生肖年名
Michel Ferlus(1992, 2013)[27][28]發現高棉曆以12年為一周期有生肖循環,它還產生了泰國陰曆的動物周期年名,實際上均來自越芒語對動物的稱呼。Ferlus主張動物生肖年名來自一種北部越語,古高棉語「蛇」m.saɲ的元音對應越芒語/a/,而不是南部越語的/i/。
動物 | 泰語生肖年名 | 高棉語 IPA | 現代高棉語 | 高棉帝國高棉語 | 古高棉語 | 原始越芒語 | 越南語 | 芒語 | 土語 | 克里語 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
鼠 | Chuat (ชวด) | cuːt | jūt (ជូត) | ɟuot | ɟuot | *ɟuot | chuột | chuột[a] /cuot⁸/ | - | - |
牛 | Chalu (ฉลู) | cʰlou | chlūv (ឆ្លូវ) | caluu | c.luː | *c.luː | trâu | tlu /tluː¹/[b] | kluː¹ | săluː² |
虎 | Khan (ขาล) | kʰaːl | khāl (ខាល) | kʰaal | kʰa:l | *k.haːlˀ | khái[c] | khảl /kʰaːl³/ | kʰaːl³ | - |
兔 | Thɔ (เถาะ) | tʰɑh | thoḥ (ថោះ) | tʰɔh | tʰɔh | *tʰɔh | thỏ | thó /tʰɔː⁵/ | tʰɔː³ | - |
龍 | Marong (มะโรง) | roːŋ | roṅ (រោង) | marooŋ | m.roːŋ | *m.roːŋ | rồng | rồng /roːŋ²/ | - | roːŋ¹ |
蛇 | Maseng (มะเส็ง) | mə̆saɲ | msāñ' (ម្សាញ់) | masaɲ | m.saɲ | *m.səɲˀ | rắn | thẳnh /tʰaɲ³/[d] | siŋ³ | - |
馬 | Mamia (มะเมีย) | mə̆miː | mamī (មមី) | mamia | m.ŋɨa | *m.ŋǝːˀ | ngựa | ngữa /ŋɨa⁴/ | - | măŋəː⁴ |
羊 | Mamɛɛ (มะแม) | mə̆mɛː | mamæ (មមែ) | mamɛɛ | m.ɓɛː | *m.ɓɛːˀ | -[e] | bẻ /ɓɛ:³/ | - | - |
猴 | Wɔɔk (วอก) | vɔːk | vak (វក) | vɔɔk | vɔːk | *vɔːk | voọc[f] | voọc /vɔːk⁸/ | vɔːk⁸ | - |
雞 | Rakaa (ระกา) | rə̆kaː | rakā (រកា) | rakaa | r.kaː | *r.kaː | gà | ca /kaː¹/ | kaː¹ | kaː¹ |
狗 | Jɔɔ (จอ) | cɑː | ca (ច) | cɔɔ | cɔː | *ʔ.cɔːˀ | chó | chỏ /cɔː³/ | cɔː³ | cɔː³ |
豬 | Kun (กุน) | kao/kol | kur (កុរ) | kur | kur | *kuːrˀ | cúi[g] | củi /kuːj³/ | kuːl⁴ | kuːl⁴ |
閱讀更多
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- Pain, Frederick. "Giao Chỉ" (Jiaozhi 交趾) as a Diffusion Center of Middle Chinese Diachronic Changes: Syllabic Weight Contrast and Phonologisation of Its Phonetic Correlates. Tsing Hua Journal of Chinese Studies. 2020, 50 (3): 356–437. doi:10.6503/THJCS.202009_50(3).0001.
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- ^ *Chamberlain, James R. 1998. "The Origin of the Sek: Implications for Tai and Vietnamese History (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)". Journal of the Siam Society 86.1 & 86.2: 27-48.
- ^ Phan, John. 2013. Lacquered Words: the Evolution of Vietnamese under Sinitic Influences from the 1st Century BCE to the 17th Century CE (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館). Ph.D. dissertation: Cornell University.
- ^ 14.0 14.1 Phan, John D. & de Sousa, Hilário. 2016. A preliminary investigation into Proto-Southwestern Middle Chinese (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館). (Paper presented at the International workshop on the history of Colloquial Chinese – written and spoken, Rutgers University, New Brunswick NJ, 11–12 March 2016.)
- ^ Welcome to World Bank Intranet (PDF). [2022-01-29]. (原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2016-03-03).
- ^ Ferlus, Michel. 1996. Langues et peuples viet-muong. Mon-Khmer Studies 26. 7–28.
- ^ Ferlus, Michel. 2004. The Origin of Tones in Viet-Muong. In Somsonge Burusphat (ed.), Papers from the Eleventh Annual Conference of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society 2001, 297–313. Tempe, Arizona: Arizona State University Programme for Southeast Asian Studies Monograph Series Press.
- ^ See Alves 2003 on the typological range in Vietic.
- ^ The following information is taken from Paul Sidwell's lecture series on the Mon–Khmer languages.[1] (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- ^ 20.0 20.1 Sidwell, Paul. Classification of MSEA Austroasiatic languages. The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia. De Gruyter. 2021: 179–206. ISBN 9783110558142. doi:10.1515/9783110558142-011.
- ^ Sidwell, Paul and Mark Alves. In preparation. A Phylogenetic Analysis of Vietic.
- ^ Alves, Mark J. Typological profile of Vietic. The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia. De Gruyter. 2021: 469–498. ISBN 9783110558142. doi:10.1515/9783110558142-022.
- ^ Chamberlain, James R. 2018. A Kri-Mol (Vietic) Bestiary: Prolegomena to the Study of Ethnozoology in the Northern Annamites (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館). Kyoto Working Papers on Area Studies (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館) No. 133. Kyoto: Kyoto University.
- ^ Phan, John. 2012. "Mường is not a subgroup: Phonological evidence for a paraphyletic taxon in the Viet-Muong sub-family." In Mon-Khmer Studies, no. 40, pp. 1-18., 2012.
- ^ Sidwell, Paul. 2015. "Austroasiatic classification." In Jenny, Mathias and Paul Sidwell, eds (2015). The Handbook of Austroasiatic Languages, 144-220. Leiden: Brill.
- ^ Phan, John D. 2012. "Mường is not a subgroup: Phonological evidence for a paraphyletic taxon in the Viet-Muong sub-family." Mon-Khmer Studies 40:1-18.
- ^ Ferlus, Michel. 1992. "Sur L』origine Des Langues Việt-Mường (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)." In The Mon-Khmer Studies Journal, 18-19: 52-59. (in French)
- ^ Michel Ferlus. The sexagesimal cycle, from China to Southeast Asia (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館). 23rd Annual Conference of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society, May 2013, Bangkok, Thailand. <halshs-00922842v2>
外部連結
- La Vaughn Hayes Vietic Digital Archives (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- SEAlang Project: Mon–Khmer languages. The Vietic Branch (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- Sidwell (2003)
- Endangered Languages of Mainland Southeast Asia (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- http://projekt.ht.lu.se/rwaai (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館) RWAAI (Repository and Workspace for Austroasiatic Intangible Heritage)
- http://hdl.handle.net/10050/00-0000-0000-0003-670D-C@view Vietic languages in RWAAI Digital Archive
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