草稿:攝影史

《在勒格拉的窗外景色》，攝於1826或1827年，普遍認為是現存最早的攝影。

物象在暗箱中的投影和感光材料的發現標誌着攝影史的開端。雖然兩者都出現得早，但並沒有證據表明十八世紀以前有人嘗試過攝影。

在1717年前後，約翰·海因里希·舒爾茨發現鹵化銀對光敏感，能顯出其他物體的影像，但他從未設計把圖像保存下來。1800年左右，托馬斯·韋奇伍德設法保存暗箱中的影像，這是有文字記錄以來的第一次攝影嘗試。

1826年，約瑟夫·尼塞福爾·涅普斯首次成功固定暗箱中的影像，然而曝光至少需要八小時，甚至長達數天，得到的影像也十分粗糙。涅普斯的合作夥伴路易·達蓋爾隨後研製出達蓋爾攝影法，是首個公告世人，且商業上可行的攝影法。達蓋爾攝影法僅需要曝光數分鐘，且輸出的圖片清晰細緻。1839年，達蓋爾公開方法的技術細節，此年也被廣泛認定為實用攝影元年。

英國發明家威廉·福克斯·塔爾博特獲悉達蓋爾的銀版攝影法後，不久研發出紙基的卡羅法。此為第一個攝負片，並可據負片制出多個相片副本的攝影法。隨後的一系列發明進一步簡化了攝影流程，並使攝影術的應用更為廣泛：新的感光材料將曝光時長縮短至數秒乃至不足一秒；新的影像載體更為經濟、方便且靈敏。1850年代以降，在玻璃板上傾倒火棉膠溶液的濕版攝影法，由於兼具達蓋爾攝影法的細膩畫質和卡羅法的便利，取代了上述兩種方法，被沿用數十年。十九世紀末年，膠捲的出現讓普通人也能拍攝相片。而到了二十世紀中葉，由於技術進步，拍攝彩色影像也實現了大眾化。

二十世紀九十年代出現的數字化攝影技術不久就顛覆了一切。千禧年代，以膠片為基礎的傳統攝影術迅速沒落，而新技術因其實用上的優勢，以及一般數碼相機之成像品質越來越好的緣故，成為主流。而自智能手機普遍搭載攝像設備以來，攝影並在網上即時發布相片，更是世界各地隨處可見的日常操作。

語源

英語中，攝影（photography）一詞為約翰·赫歇爾的創造。Photography之前半「photo-」為希臘語「φῶς」的轉寫，意為「光」；後半「-graphy」為希臘語「γραφή」的轉寫，意為「繪畫」。因此，photography一詞的含義就是「以光作畫」。

通常認為，清代物理學家鄒伯奇創造了「攝影」一詞。道光二十四年（1844），鄒伯奇製作了自己的照相機，稱之為「攝影之器」，並著有《攝影之器記》，詳細記載他的攝影方法。「攝影」一詞由是被沿用至今。

相機的前身：暗箱

主條目：暗箱

各種暗箱（或暗室）。

1839年的達蓋爾相機，外觀與盒式暗箱十分相似。

透過小孔，可在平面上投影顛倒的物象，稱為小孔成像。這一現象最早見於《墨子》，大約成書於公元前四世紀。暗箱便是以小孔成像原理製成。早期的暗箱並非箱形，而是牆壁上開有透光小孔的黑暗房間。雖然暗箱的原理和概念很早就已為人所知，但是在十六世紀之前，暗箱主要用於光學和天文學的研究，特別是用於觀察日蝕。

十六世紀後半葉，暗箱得到了數次改進：加裝雙凸透鏡聚焦圖像，加裝光圈控制孔徑。1558年，吉安巴蒂斯塔·德拉·波爾塔在他的著作中提出可用暗箱輔助繪畫，他的建議被藝術家群體廣泛採納。十七世紀，暗箱變得越來越便攜：先是帳篷式的暗箱，再到後世通用的盒式暗箱。攝影術發明之初，當時使用的「相機」便是從盒式暗箱改裝而成。

感光材料的發現

人們可能在上古時期就已經從曬黑等現象認識到光能改變物質。在攝影術出現之前，人們可能就產生過把鏡中影像固定下來的設想，或者幻想如何自動繪圖。然而，儘管人們了解小孔成像原理，乃至對感光材料有一定認識，但是一直以來，並沒有人提出過與攝影術相近的設想，直至十八世紀。

1614年，安傑洛·薩拉注意到，日光照射白色硝酸銀粉末會使粉末變黑，並且，將粉末久置一年也有同樣效果。1694年，威廉·洪伯格也描述了某些化學品感光後變黑的現象。

早期攝影構想與試驗

在1717年左右，德國博學家約翰·海因里希·舒爾茨意外發現，由白堊和硝酸混成的摻了銀粉的泥漿，經日光照射後會變黑。在後來的實驗中，他先嘗試用絲線遮擋瓶中的泥漿，進而嘗試製作出文字的剪紙，以紙卷於瓶身，結果在瓶身上產生了暗紅色的文字字樣。這一現象，除非擾動瓶中泥漿，能持續一段時間，直至曝光過長，泥漿全部變色為止。舒爾茨1719年公布他的發現時，把這種泥漿呼作「Scotophor」。他認為這一發現可以用以檢驗物質中是否含銀。舒爾茨的實驗與後來的黑影照片工藝類似，有時也被認為是最早的攝影形式。

法國作家蒂法涅·德拉羅什在他1760年出版的早期科幻作品《吉潘蒂》中描述了一種與攝影術十分相似的取像技術，可以利用光線將瞬間的影像固定下來。他寫道：

“ 以一種物質敷於畫布，置之物前以捕捉影像。處理過的畫布與鏡相似，但與鏡不同的是，憑藉這種物質的黏性，它能把影像留存下來。鏡真實地映出物像，而毫無保留；我們這種畫布映出的像竟也同樣真實，而全盤保留，保留下的是瞬間的圖像。之後，將畫布卸下，轉移至暗處，待一小時後，畫布乾燥，就得到了比任何藝術更珍貴的圖像，因為它的真實性無可比擬。 ”

1777年，化學家卡爾·威廉·舍勒在研究感光性能更強的物質氯化銀的過程當中，發現光線能令其變暗，並確定個中原理在於光線將其分解為色彩黯淡的銀金屬微粒。舍勒又發現氨令氯化銀溶解，卻沒有令那些深色微粒溶解。這項發現揭露了其潛在效用更大的一面，本應推動氯化銀在固定相片影像方面的應用，但在最早的時候並沒有得到實驗人員的關注。

舍勒還注意到，氯化銀對紅光的敏感度較低。後來，這一現象在暗房中得到應用，紅光作為安全光源在沖洗黑白底片時作照明用。舍勒後來大約是忽視抑或遺忘了這些實驗，並沒有進一步探究其用途。

1800年左右，托馬斯·韋奇伍德受舍勒的實驗啟發，設法攝得影像，但他找不到固定影像的方法。

伊麗莎白·富勒姆在她的著作《燃燒論》中描述了她探究光對銀鹽作用的實驗。雖然富勒姆發現催化作用更廣為人知，但亦有學者認為她在銀鹽感光方面的研究成果令攝影的探索前進一大步。

English photographer and inventor Thomas Wedgwood is believed to have been the first person to have thought of creating permanent pictures by capturing camera images on material coated with a light-sensitive chemical. He originally wanted to capture the images of a camera obscura, but found they were too faint to have an effect upon the silver nitrate solution that was recommended to him as a light-sensitive substance. Wedgwood did manage to copy painted glass plates and captured shadows on white leather, as well as on paper moistened with a silver nitrate solution. Attempts to preserve the results with their "distinct tints of brown or black, sensibly differing in intensity" failed. It is unclear when Wedgwood's experiments took place. He may have started before 1790; James Watt wrote a letter to Thomas Wedgwood's father Josiah Wedgwood to thank him "for your instructions as to the Silver Pictures, about which, when at home, I will make some experiments". This letter (now lost) is believed to have been written in 1790, 1791 or 1799. In 1802, an account by Humphry Davy detailing Wedgwood's experiments was published in an early journal of the Royal Institution with the title An Account of a Method of Copying Paintings upon Glass, and of Making Profiles, by the Agency of Light upon Nitrate of Silver. Davy added that the method could be used for objects that are partly opaque and partly transparent to create accurate representations of, for instance, "the woody fibres of leaves and the wings of insects". He also found that solar microscope images of small objects were easily captured on prepared paper. Davy, apparently unaware or forgetful of Scheele's discovery, concluded that substances should be found to eliminate (or deactivate) the unexposed particles in silver nitrate or silver chloride "to render the process as useful as it is elegant". Wedgwood may have prematurely abandoned his experiments because of his frail and failing health. He died at age 34 in 1805.

Davy seems not to have continued the experiments. Although the journal of the nascent Royal Institution probably reached its very small group of members, the article must have been read eventually by many more people. It was reviewed by David Brewster in the Edinburgh Magazine in December 1802, appeared in chemistry textbooks as early as 1803, was translated into French and was published in German in 1811. Readers of the article may have been discouraged to find a fixer, because the highly acclaimed scientist Davy had already tried and failed. Apparently the article was not noted by Niépce or Daguerre, and by Talbot only after he had developed his own processes.

French balloonist, professor and inventor Jacques Charles is believed to have captured fleeting negative photograms of silhouettes on light-sensitive paper at the start of the 19th century, prior to Wedgwood. Charles died in 1823 without having documented the process, but purportedly demonstrated it in his lectures at the Louvre. It was not publicized until François Arago mentioned it at his introduction of the details of the daguerreotype to the world in 1839. He later wrote that the first idea of fixing the images of the camera obscura or the solar microscope with chemical substances belonged to Charles. Later historians probably only built on Arago's information, and, much later, the unsupported year 1780 was attached to it. As Arago indicated the first years of the 19th century and a date prior to the 1802 publication of Wedgwood's process, this would mean that Charles' demonstrations took place in 1800 or 1801, assuming that Arago was this accurate almost 40 years later.

1816至1833年：涅普斯固定影像的嘗試

The earliest known surviving heliographic engraving, made in 1825. It was printed from a metal plate made by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce with his "heliographic process". The plate was exposed under an ordinary engraving and copied it by photographic means. This was a step towards the first permanent photograph from nature taken with a camera obscura.

The Boulevard du Temple, a daguerreotype made by Louis Daguerre in 1838, is generally accepted as the earliest photograph to include people. It is a view of a busy street, but because the exposure lasted for several minutes the moving traffic left no trace. Only the two men near the bottom left corner, one of them apparently having his boots polished by the other, remained in one place long enough to be visible.

In 1816, Nicéphore Niépce, using paper coated with silver chloride, succeeded in photographing the images formed in a small camera, but the photographs were negatives, darkest where the camera image was lightest and vice versa, and they were not permanent in the sense of being reasonably light-fast; like earlier experimenters, Niépce could find no way to prevent the coating from darkening all over when it was exposed to light for viewing. Disenchanted with silver salts, he turned his attention to light-sensitive organic substances.

The oldest surviving photograph of the image formed in a camera was created by Niépce in 1826 or 1827. It was made on a polished sheet of pewter and the light-sensitive substance was a thin coating of bitumen, a naturally occurring petroleum tar, which was dissolved in lavender oil, applied to the surface of the pewter and allowed to dry before use. After a very long exposure in the camera (traditionally said to be eight hours, but now believed to be several days), the bitumen was sufficiently hardened in proportion to its exposure to light that the unhardened part could be removed with a solvent, leaving a positive image with the light areas represented by hardened bitumen and the dark areas by bare pewter. To see the image plainly, the plate had to be lit and viewed in such a way that the bare metal appeared dark and the bitumen relatively light.

In partnership, Niépce in Chalon-sur-Saône and Louis Daguerre in Paris refined the bitumen process, substituting a more sensitive resin and a very different post-exposure treatment that yielded higher-quality and more easily viewed images. Exposure times in the camera, although substantially reduced, were still measured in hours.

1832至1840年：早期黑白攝影法

Robert Cornelius, self-portrait, October or November 1839, an approximately quarter plate size daguerreotype. On the back is written, "The first light picture ever taken".

One of the oldest photographic portraits known, 1839 or 1840, made by John William Draper of his sister, Dorothy Catherine Draper

Niépce died suddenly in 1833, leaving his notes to Daguerre. More interested in silver-based processes than Niépce had been, Daguerre experimented with photographing camera images directly onto a mirror-like silver-surfaced plate that had been fumed with iodine vapor, which reacted with the silver to form a coating of silver iodide. As with the bitumen process, the result appeared as a positive when it was suitably lit and viewed. Exposure times were still impractically long until Daguerre made the pivotal discovery that an invisibly slight or "latent" image produced on such a plate by a much shorter exposure could be "developed" to full visibility by mercury fumes. This brought the required exposure time down to a few minutes under optimum conditions. A strong hot solution of common salt served to stabilize or fix the image by removing the remaining silver iodide. On 7 January 1839, this first complete practical photographic process was announced at a meeting of the French Academy of Sciences, and the news quickly spread. At first, all details of the process were withheld and specimens were shown only at Daguerre's studio, under his close supervision, to Academy members and other distinguished guests. Arrangements were made for the French government to buy the rights in exchange for pensions for Niépce's son and Daguerre and present the invention to the world (with the exception of Great Britain, where an agent for Daguerre patented it) as a free gift. Complete instructions were made public on 19 August 1839. Known as the daguerreotype process, it was the most common commercial process until the late 1850s when it was superseded by the collodion process.

French-born Hércules Florence developed his own photographic technique in 1832 or 1833 in Brazil, with some help of pharmacist Joaquim Corrêa de Mello (1816–1877). Looking for another method to copy graphic designs he captured their images on paper treated with silver nitrate as contact prints or in a camera obscura device. He did not manage to properly fix his images and abandoned the project after hearing of the Daguerreotype process in 1839 and didn't properly publish any of his findings. He reportedly referred to the technique as "photographie" (in French) as early as 1833, also helped by a suggestion of De Mello. Some extant photographic contact prints are believed to have been made in circa 1833 and kept in the collection of IMS.

Daguerreotype Of Dr John William Draper at NYU in the fall of 1839, sitting with his plant experiment and pen in hand. Possibly by Samuel Morse.

Henry Fox Talbot had already succeeded in creating stabilized photographic negatives on paper in 1835, but worked on perfecting his own process after reading early reports of Daguerre's invention. In early 1839, he acquired a key improvement, an effective fixer, from his friend John Herschel, a polymath scientist who had previously shown that hyposulfite of soda (commonly called "hypo" and now known formally as sodium thiosulfate) would dissolve silver salts. News of this solvent also benefited Daguerre, who soon adopted it as a more efficient alternative to his original hot salt water method.

A calotype showing the American photographer Frederick Langenheim, circa 1849. The caption on the photo calls the process "Talbotype".

Talbot's early silver chloride "sensitive paper" experiments required camera exposures of an hour or more. In 1841, Talbot invented the calotype process, which, like Daguerre's process, used the principle of chemical development of a faint or invisible "latent" image to reduce the exposure time to a few minutes. Paper with a coating of silver iodide was exposed in the camera and developed into a translucent negative image. Unlike a daguerreotype, which could only be copied by photographing it with a camera, a calotype negative could be used to make a large number of positive prints by simple contact printing. The calotype had yet another distinction compared to other early photographic processes, in that the finished product lacked fine clarity due to its translucent paper negative. This was seen as a positive attribute for portraits because it softened the appearance of the human face. Talbot patented this process, which greatly limited its adoption, and spent many years pressing lawsuits against alleged infringers. He attempted to enforce a very broad interpretation of his patent, earning himself the ill will of photographers who were using the related glass-based processes later introduced by other inventors, but he was eventually defeated. Nonetheless, Talbot's developed-out silver halide negative process is the basic technology used by chemical film cameras today. Hippolyte Bayard had also developed a method of photography but delayed announcing it, and so was not recognized as its inventor.

In 1839, John Herschel made the first glass negative, but his process was difficult to reproduce. Slovene Janez Puhar invented a process for making photographs on glass in 1841; it was recognized on June 17, 1852 in Paris by the Académie National Agricole, Manufacturière et Commerciale. In 1847, Nicephore Niépce's cousin, the chemist Niépce St. Victor, published his invention of a process for making glass plates with an albumen emulsion; the Langenheim brothers of Philadelphia and John Whipple and William Breed Jones of Boston also invented workable negative-on-glass processes in the mid-1840s.

1850至1900年：黑白攝影逐步成熟

In 1851, English sculptor Frederick Scott Archer invented the collodion process. Photographer and children's author Lewis Carroll used this process. Carroll refers to the process as "Talbotype" in the story "A Photographer's Day Out".

Herbert Bowyer Berkeley experimented with his own version of collodion emulsions after Samman introduced the idea of adding dithionite to the pyrogallol developer. Berkeley discovered that with his own addition of sulfite, to absorb the sulfur dioxide given off by the chemical dithionite in the developer, dithionite was not required in the developing process. In 1881, he published his discovery. Berkeley's formula contained pyrogallol, sulfite, and citric acid. Ammonia was added just before use to make the formula alkaline. The new formula was sold by the Platinotype Company in London as Sulphur-Pyrogallol Developer.

Nineteenth-century experimentation with photographic processes frequently became proprietary. The German-born, New Orleans photographer Theodore Lilienthal successfully sought legal redress in an 1881 infringement case involving his "Lambert Process" in the Eastern District of Louisiana.

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  A photograph captured by Mary Dillwyn in Wales in 1853
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  Roger Fenton's assistant seated on Fenton's photographic van, Crimea, 1855
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  Boston, as the Eagle and the Wild Goose See It, by J.W. Black, the first recorded aerial photograph, 1860
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  The 1866 "Jumelle de Nicour", an early attempt at a small-format, portable camera

大眾化

Lapwing incubating its eggs - Photograph of a Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus), for which in 1895 R. B. Lodge received from the Royal Photographic Society the first medal ever presented for nature photography. Eric Hosking and Harold Lowes stated their belief that this was the first photograph of a wild bird.

The daguerreotype proved popular in response to the demand for portraiture that emerged from the middle classes during the Industrial Revolution. This demand, which could not be met in volume and in cost by oil painting, added to the push for the development of photography.

Roger Fenton and Philip Henry Delamotte helped popularize the new way of recording events, the first by his Crimean War pictures, the second by his record of the disassembly and reconstruction of The Crystal Palace in London. Other mid-nineteenth-century photographers established the medium as a more precise means than engraving or lithography of making a record of landscapes and architecture: for example, Robert Macpherson's broad range of photographs of Rome, the interior of the Vatican, and the surrounding countryside became a sophisticated tourist's visual record of his own travels.

In 1839, François Arago reported the invention of photography to stunned listeners by displaying the first photo taken in Egypt; that of Ras El Tin Palace.

In America, by 1851 a broadsheet by daguerreotypist Augustus Washington was advertising prices ranging from 50 cents to $10. However, daguerreotypes were fragile and difficult to copy. Photographers encouraged chemists to refine the process of making many copies cheaply, which eventually led them back to Talbot's process.

Ultimately, the photographic process came about from a series of refinements and improvements in the first 20 years. In 1884 George Eastman, of Rochester, New York, developed dry gel on paper, or film, to replace the photographic plate so that a photographer no longer needed to carry boxes of plates and toxic chemicals around. In July 1888 Eastman's Kodak camera went on the market with the slogan "You press the button, we do the rest". Now anyone could take a photograph and leave the complex parts of the process to others, and photography became available for the mass-market in 1901 with the introduction of the Kodak Brownie.

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  General view of The Crystal Palace at Sydenham by Philip Henry Delamotte, 1854
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  A mid-19th century "Brady stand" armrest table, used to help subjects keep still during long exposures. It was named for famous US photographer Mathew Brady.
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  An 1855 Punch cartoon satirized problems with posing for Daguerreotypes: slight movement during exposure resulted in blurred features, red-blindness made rosy complexions look dark.
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  The Market Square of Helsinki, in the 1890s
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  In this 1893 multiple-exposure trick photo, the photographer appears to be photographing himself. It satirizes studio equipment and procedures that were nearly obsolete by then. Note the clamp to hold the sitter's head still.
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  A comparison of common print sizes used in photographic studios during the 19th century. Sizes are in inches.

立體攝影

主條目：Stereoscope

Charles Wheatstone developed his mirror stereoscope around 1832, but did not really publicize his invention until June 1838. He recognized the possibility of a combination with photography soon after Daguerre and Talbot announced their inventions and got Henry Fox Talbot to produce some calotype pairs for the stereoscope. He received the first results in October 1840, but was not fully satisfied as the angle between the shots was very big. Between 1841 and 1842 Henry Collen made calotypes of statues, buildings and portraits, including a portrait of Charles Babbage shot in August 1841. Wheatstone also obtained daguerreotype stereograms from Mr. Beard in 1841 and from Hippolyte Fizeau and Antoine Claudet in 1842. None of these have yet been located.

David Brewster developed a stereoscope with lenses and a binocular camera in 1844. He presented two stereoscopic self portraits made by John Adamson in March 1849. A stereoscopic portrait of Adamson in the University of St Andrews Library Photographic Archive, dated "circa 1845', may be one of these sets. A stereoscopic daguerreotype portrait of Michael Faraday in Kingston College's Wheatstone collection and on loan to Bradford National Media Museum, dated "circa 1848", may be older.

彩色攝影

主條目：彩色攝影

A practical means of color photography was sought from the very beginning. Results were demonstrated by Edmond Becquerel as early as the year of 1848, but exposures lasting for hours or days were required and the captured colors were so light-sensitive they would only bear very brief inspection in dim light.

The first durable color photograph was a set of three black-and-white photographs taken through red, green, and blue color filters and shown superimposed by using three projectors with similar filters. It was taken by Thomas Sutton in 1861 for use in a lecture by the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell, who had proposed the method in 1855. The photographic emulsions then in use were insensitive to most of the spectrum, so the result was very imperfect and the demonstration was soon forgotten. Maxwell's method is now most widely known through the early 20th century work of Sergei Prokudin-Gorskii. It was made practical by Hermann Wilhelm Vogel's 1873 discovery of a way to make emulsions sensitive to the rest of the spectrum, gradually introduced into commercial use beginning in the mid-1880s.

Two French inventors, Louis Ducos du Hauron and Charles Cros, working unknown to each other during the 1860s, famously unveiled their nearly identical ideas on the same day in 1869. Included were methods for viewing a set of three color-filtered black-and-white photographs in color without having to project them, and for using them to make full-color prints on paper.

The first widely used method of color photography was the Autochrome plate, a process inventors and brothers Auguste and Louis Lumière began working on in the 1890s and commercially introduced in 1907. It was based on one of Louis Duclos du Haroun's ideas: instead of taking three separate photographs through color filters, take one through a mosaic of tiny color filters overlaid on the emulsion and view the results through an identical mosaic. If the individual filter elements were small enough, the three primary colors of red, blue, and green would blend together in the eye and produce the same additive color synthesis as the filtered projection of three separate photographs.

Autochrome plates had an integral mosaic filter layer with roughly five million previously dyed potato grains per square inch added to the surface. Then through the use of a rolling press, five tons of pressure were used to flatten the grains, enabling every one of them to capture and absorb color and their microscopic size allowing the illusion that the colors are merged. The final step was adding a coat of the light-capturing substance silver bromide, after which a color image could be imprinted and developed. In order to see it, reversal processing was used to develop each plate into a transparent positive that could be viewed directly or projected with an ordinary projector. One of the drawbacks of the technology was an exposure time of at least a second in bright daylight, with the time required quickly increasing in poor light. An indoor portrait required several minutes with the subject stationary. This was because the grains absorbed color fairly slowly, and a filter of a yellowish-orange color was required to keep the photograph from coming out excessively blue. Although necessary, the filter had the effect of reducing the amount of light that was absorbed. Another drawback was that the image could only be enlarged so much before the many dots that made up the image would become apparent.

Competing screen plate products soon appeared, and film-based versions were eventually made. All were expensive, and until the 1930s none was "fast" enough for hand-held snapshot-taking, so they mostly served a niche market of affluent advanced amateurs.

A new era in color photography began with the introduction of Kodachrome film, available for 16 mm home movies in 1935 and 35 mm slides in 1936. It captured the red, green, and blue color components in three layers of emulsion. A complex processing operation produced complementary cyan, magenta, and yellow dye images in those layers, resulting in a subtractive color image. Maxwell's method of taking three separate filtered black-and-white photographs continued to serve special purposes into the 1950s and beyond, and Polachrome, an "instant" slide film that used the Autochrome's additive principle, was available until 2003, but the few color print and slide films still being made in 2015 all use the multilayer emulsion approach pioneered by Kodachrome.

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  The first durable color photograph, taken by Thomas Sutton in 1861.
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  An 1877 color photographic print on paper by Louis Ducos du Hauron, the foremost early French pioneer of color photography by subtractive color.
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  Alim Khan photographed by Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky using Maxwell's method, 1911
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  A color portrait of Mark Twain by Alvin Langdon Coburn, 1908, made by the recently introduced Autochrome process
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  Kodachrome photo by Chalmers Butterfield of Shaftesbury Avenue from Piccadilly Circus, in the West End of London, c. 1949

數碼攝影

主條目：數碼攝影

Walden Kirsch as scanned into the SEAC computer in 1957

In 1957, a team led by Russell A. Kirsch at the National Institute of Standards and Technology developed a binary digital version of an existing technology, the wirephoto drum scanner, so that alphanumeric characters, diagrams, photographs and other graphics could be transferred into digital computer memory. One of the first photographs scanned was a picture of Kirsch's infant son Walden. The resolution was 176x176 pixels with only one bit per pixel, i.e., stark black and white with no intermediate gray tones, but by combining multiple scans of the photograph done with different black-white threshold settings, grayscale information could also be acquired.

The charge-coupled device (CCD) is the image-capturing optoelectronic component in first-generation digital cameras. It was invented in 1969 by Willard Boyle and George E. Smith at AT&T Bell Labs as a memory device. The lab was working on the Picturephone and on the development of semiconductor bubble memory. Merging these two initiatives, Boyle and Smith conceived of the design of what they termed "Charge 'Bubble' Devices". The essence of the design was the ability to transfer charge along the surface of a semiconductor. It was Dr. Michael Tompsett from Bell Labs however, who discovered that the CCD could be used as an imaging sensor. The CCD has increasingly been replaced by the active pixel sensor (APS), commonly used in cell phone cameras. These mobile phone cameras are used by billions of people worldwide, dramatically increasing photographic activity and material and also fueling citizen journalism.

• 1973 – Fairchild Semiconductor releases the first large image-capturing CCD chip: 100 rows and 100 columns.
• 1975 – Bryce Bayer of Kodak develops the Bayer filter mosaic pattern for CCD color image sensors
• 1986 – Kodak scientists develop the world's first megapixel sensor.

The web has been a popular medium for storing and sharing photos ever since the first photograph was published on the web by Tim Berners-Lee in 1992 (an image of the CERN house band Les Horribles Cernettes). Since then sites and apps such as Facebook, Flickr, Instagram, Picasa (discontinued in 2016), Imgur, Photobucket and Snapchat have been used by many millions of people to share their pictures.

歷史影像圖集

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  Small Wooden box containing uncased primitive daguerreotypes. They are the early work of Dr John Draper and Samuel Morse at NYU in the fall of 1839. A failed image attempt and four good images from the box are posted in this gallery.
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  Failed image attempt by John W Draper from the box containing his early efforts at making daguerreotypes at NYU in the fall of 1839
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  Dr John William Draper, long credited as the first person to take an image of the human face, sitting with his plant experiment , pen in hand, at NYU in the fall of 1839. Daguerreotype by Samuel Morse 1839.
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  Samuel Morse, Art Professor at NYU in 1839. Daguerreotype by Dr John William Draper 1839.
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  Theodore Frelinghuysen, President Of NYU in 1839. Daguerreotype by Dr John William Draper 1839.
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  Dr Martyn Paine. One Of the founders Of the NYU medical school Daguerreotype by Dr John William Draper 1839.
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  Andrew Jackson at age 78.
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  Arthur Wellesley, the Duke of Wellington, aged 74 or 75, made by Antoine Claudet in 1844.
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  島津齊彬肖像，隨從市來四郎攝於1857年，為日本現存之最早照片
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  1851年7月28日的日食，此為第一張正確曝光的日食照片，采達蓋爾攝影法攝製
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  哲學家弗里德里希·謝林，赫爾曼·比奧攝於1848年2月
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  何塞·德聖馬丁，1848年攝於巴黎
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  Conrad Heyer at age 103 in 1852, possibly the earliest-born American ever photographed (born 1749)
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  蕭邦，攝於1849年左右

參見

• 照相機
• 攝影機
• 即時成像膠片
• 蛋白印相
• 最重要照片列表
• 攝影鏡頭設計史
• 攝影技術發展時間線
• 攝影綱要

拓展閱讀

• Hannavy, John. Encyclopedia of Nineteenth-Century Photography, 5 volumes
• Clerc, L.P. Photography Theory and Practice, being an English edition of "La Technique Photographique"

外部連結

• Photography. Encyclopædia Britannica 21 (第11版). London: 845–522. 1911. 
• The Silver Canvas: Daguerreotype Masterpieces from the J. Paul Getty Museum Bates Lowry, Isabel Barrett Lowry 1998
• A History of Photography from its Beginnings Till the 1920s by Dr. Robert Leggat, now hosted by Dr Michael Prichard
• The First Photograph at The University of Texas at Austin

Category:攝影史 Category:科學與技術史 Category:各種主題的歷史 Category:攝影 Category:視覺藝術