跳至內容

用戶:Karoke Cirno/sandbox 2

維基百科，自由的百科全書
  關於與「User:Karoke Cirno/sandbox 2」標題相近或相同的用戶頁，請見「User:Karoke Cirno/sandbox 2 (消歧義)」。
  「Birding」和「Birdwatchers」均重新導向至此。關於the hunting of birds，請見「Fowling」。關於the capture of birds，請見「Bird trapping」。關於the magazine，請見「Birding (magazine)」。關於紀錄片，請見「觀鳥者 (紀錄片)」。
三個人正持雙筒望遠鏡觀鳥

觀鳥（英語：Birdwatching、Birding）即觀察鳥類，既可以是一項休閒活動，也可是公眾科學的一種形式。觀鳥者可以使用裸眼觀察，藉助雙筒望遠鏡、望遠鏡等視覺增強設備觀察，聆聽鳥鳴[1][2]，觀看公共攝像頭，或查看智能餵鳥器（英語：Bird feeder）自帶的攝像機。

絕大多數觀鳥者參與到觀鳥活動中都是用以消遣或社交，這與鳥類學家不同，後者會使用正式的科學方法研究鳥類。[1][2]

用詞

芬蘭漢卡薩爾米的一座觀鳥塔

「birdwatching」一詞首次記載是1712年威廉·歐茲沃思（William Oldsworth）的作品。而「birding」一詞也曾用於代表捕鳥或用火器狩獵，例如莎士比亞的《溫莎的風流婦人》中就有這樣一句：「She laments sir... her husband goes this morning a-birding.」[3]如今，「birding」和「birdwatching」這兩個詞有時可以互換使用，不過某些人更傾向於使用「birding」，一定程度上因為這個詞並沒有將觀鳥行為限制在視覺，而是包括了聽覺享受。

在北美洲，許多觀鳥者並不自認為是「birdwatcher」，而使用「birder」，這個詞對於外行通常不太熟悉。從最基礎的層面上來說，兩者可以根據投入狀態和熱情區別，儘管這十分主管。通常自稱為「birder」的人會認為自己更精通於細節，例如辨識能力（聽覺或視覺）、換羽、鳥類分佈、遷徙時間和棲息地等。這些投入的「birder」往往會為了尋找鳥類專門外出旅行，而「birdwatcher」則被一些愛好者描述為活動範圍較為有限，可能只在自家院子或本地公園中觀看鳥類。[1]實際上，1969年《Birding（英語：Birding (magazine)）》雜誌的「觀鳥用語」中曾給出如下定義：

Birder：這一用語常用於描述認真從事觀鳥這一愛好的人。可以是專業人士或業餘愛好者。

Birding：一種愛好，有這種愛好的人通常喜愛鳥類研究、列清單或其他涉及鳥類生活的活動所帶來的挑戰。

Bird-watcher：一個模稜兩可的用語，用於描述任何觀察鳥類的人，無論是出於什麼原因，並且不應用來指代嚴肅的觀鳥者。

——Birding，Volume 1, No.2

「twitching」是一個英式用語，表示「追尋曾經有過定位的稀有鳥類」的行為。在北美洲，一般被稱作「chasing」。「twitcher」一詞雖然有時會被誤用為「birder」的同義詞，但實際上是用來描述一類特定的人群，他們會長途跋涉只為一睹稀有鳥類，並且將這種鳥「tick」[註 1]或列入清單。[2][4]這個術語起源於1950年代，最初用來表示一位英國觀鳥者霍華德·梅德赫斯特（Howard Medhurst）十分焦慮的行為。[5]早先會使用「pot-hunter」、「tally-hunter」或「tick-hunter」來描述那些追尋稀有鳥的人。這種行為的主要目的一般都是在個人清單上添加新物種。有些觀鳥者會相互競爭，積累最長的物種清單。追尋鳥類的行為本身被稱為「twitch」或「chase」。逗留時間較長，人們可以看到的稀有鳥會被描述為「twitchable」或「chaseable」。[2][6][4]

在英國、荷蘭、丹麥、愛爾蘭、芬蘭、瑞典等國，追尋鳥類的行為有長足發展。這些國家面積不太大，因而可以較快地旅行全國，並且相對方便。英國最受歡迎的「twitch」活動曾吸引了大量人群；例如，約有2500人前往肯特郡觀看一隻原分佈於北美的金翅蟲森鶯（英語：golden-winged warbler）。[7]這個群體也發展出了其自有的用語（英語：Twitchers' vocabulary）。例如，沒能看到稀有鳥的「twitcher」會被描述為「dipped out」；如果有其他人反而看到了，他們會感到「gripped off」。「suppression」表示對其他「twitcher」隱藏稀有鳥消息的行為。[2]

許多觀鳥者都會有自己的鳥類清單（英語：Life list），上面記錄了這個人見過的所有物種，通常還會記錄日期和地點。如果要將清單提交至美國觀鳥協會（英語：American Birding Association），該協會則會對於鳥種記錄的要求有明確規定；不過如果僅用於個人記錄， 標準則十分主觀。部分觀鳥者會將通過聆聽辨識的鳥類計數，而有的則只會記錄通過視覺辨識的鳥種。有的人還會維護「國家清單（country list）」、「州清單（state list）」、「縣清單（county list）」、「定點清單（yard list）[註 2]」、「年清單（year list）」等，或者上述清單的組合。

歷史

1921年6月，新南威爾斯，觀鳥攝影家亞歷山大·休·奇澤姆（英語：Alexander Hugh Chisholm）

最早不專注於鳥類的實用價值（如食用），而是美學價值而觀察鳥類的行為可以追溯至18世紀晚期，即吉爾伯特·懷特（英語：Gilbert White）、托馬斯·比伊克（英語：Thomas Bewick）、喬治·蒙塔古和約翰·克萊爾（英語：John Clare）的作品。[8]維多利亞時代，鳥類以及自然歷史的研究在英國日漸普遍，這通常又與藏品（英語：bird collections）、鳥蛋、後來還有皮毛相關，因而逐漸成為人們關注的對象。富有的收藏家與殖民地達成協議，從世界各地收集標本。直到19世紀末期，鳥類保護的呼聲才引起了活體鳥類觀察的熱潮。期間奧杜邦學會建立，旨在打擊美國日漸盛行的鳥類貿易，保護鳥類，而在英國則有英國皇家鳥類保護協會。[9]

短語「bird watching」首次出現於埃德蒙·塞盧斯（英語：Edmund Selous）1901年所著《Bird Watching》一書的標題。[10]在北美，隨着光學器材和野外識別指南的出現，曾被認為只能通過射殺識別鳥類的觀念被打破。美國最早的野外指南是弗洛倫絲·梅里亞姆·貝莉（英語：Florence Merriam Bailey）於1889年所著的《Birds through an Opera Glass》。[11]

北美的觀鳥於20世紀中期在東部沿海地區受到關注，這主要是受到勒德洛·格里斯科姆（英語：Ludlow Griscom）以及羅傑·托瑞·彼得森著作的影響。Neltje Blanchan（英語：Neltje Blanchan）1897年所著的早期觀鳥書籍《Bird Neighbors（英語：Bird Neighbors）》邁賣出了超過25萬份，[12]其中的插畫都是毛絨鳥玩具（stuffed birds？）的彩色照片。[13]

對於觀鳥感興趣的人一般通過奧杜邦學會和美國鳥類學家聯盟（英語：American Ornithologists' Union）這樣反對獵殺鳥類的組織進行組織和聯絡。汽車的流行大大提高了觀鳥者的機動性，使得他們可以前往從未去過的區域。[14]英國觀鳥者的聯絡網則依託於英國鳥類學基金會（英語：British Trust for Ornithology），形成於1930年代末。基金會發現通過這樣的聯絡網產生科學成果的潛力，跟奧杜邦協會一樣起源於鳥類保護運動的皇家鳥類保護協會則不同。[15]

英國鳥類學基金會與美國鳥類學家聯盟同樣專注於依靠收藏進行分類研究。隨後在1940年代，基金會將重心轉移到了生態和行為研究。[16]基金會提出「有組織觀鳥（organized birdwatching）」的運動遭到了英國皇家鳥類保護協會的反對，後者稱他們並不樂見這種休閒活動的「科學化」。但1936年湯姆·哈里森（英語：Tom Harrisson）及其他人接管皇家鳥類保護協會後，其立場發生了變化。哈里森在組織對鳳頭鸊鷈進行首次開創性的調查中發揮了重要作用。[17]

隨着觀鳥者機動性進一步增強，例如約翰·古德斯（英語：John Gooders）的《Where to Watch Birds》這種書最為暢銷。[18]1960年代航空交通逐漸變得便利，長距離的度假目的地也開辦起來。1965年時，英國的首個觀鳥旅遊公司「Ornitholidays」由勞倫斯·霍洛韋（Lawrence Holloway）創辦。[19]長途旅行也導致了一些名稱上的問題：英國的鳥類如「wheatear（䳭）」、「heron（鷺）」、「swallow（燕）」都需要加上形容詞，來跟當地多種相似的物種做區分。[20]1980年代，航空旅行的花費持續降低，絕大多數人有了飛往遙遠的目的地觀鳥的可能。全球鳥類指引的需求在呢國家，從而催生的影響最大的項目之一就是《世界鳥類手冊（英語：Handbook of the Birds of the World）》，該項目是由約瑟夫·德爾奧約（Josep del Hoyo）、霍爾迪·薩加斯塔爾（Jordi Sargatal）、戴維·克里斯蒂（David A. Christie）和鳥類學家安迪·埃利奧特（Andy Elliott）在1990年代發起的。[21]

最初觀鳥局限於英國和美國這樣的發達國家，但自20世紀後半葉以來，越來越多發展中國家的觀鳥愛好者參與到這項活動中來，例如埃塞俄比亞的Dogu'a Tembien（英語：Dogu'a Tembien）。[22]跨國觀鳥的活動發揮了重要作用，因為發展中國家的觀鳥者一般都是在具有觀鳥歷史的外國文化影響下，才開始這項休閒活動。[23]大部分的跨國觀鳥者都是中年男性，家境富裕，通常來自英語世界國家或斯堪的那維亞。[24]

經濟與環境影響

親眼見到安蒂藪雀（英語：Antioquia brushfinch）這樣的稀有鳥類並留下照片，是某些觀鳥者的目標

20世紀時，北美洲的絕大多數觀鳥活動都在東海岸。[25]1934年，羅傑·托里·彼得森（Roger Tory Peterson）出版的野外指南（英語：Peterson Field Guides）首次刺激了觀鳥活動的發展。雙筒望遠鏡這一觀鳥的必備裝備在二戰後變得更為普及，使得這一愛好更加容易實現。而隨着汽車的日益普及，長途跋涉去觀賞稀有鳥類的活動也愈加常見。[26]

1970年代，北美洲約4%的人都對觀鳥有興趣，到1980年代中期，一年內觀鳥超過20天的比例至少達到了11%。1980年代晚期，觀鳥者的數量預計有6100萬。觀鳥者的收入水平超過平均。[27]

2000年出版的《西布利觀鳥指南（英語：The Sibley Guide to Birds）》截至2002年共售出了50萬份。[28]觀鳥者的數量在不斷增加，但在後院進行觀鳥的人數卻有所下降。[29]

根據美國魚類及野生動物管理局的調查，2006年觀鳥者對美國經濟貢獻了360億美元，五分之一的美國人都被認定為觀鳥者。[30]2016年，美國魚類及野生動物管理局稱超過4500萬美國人自認為觀鳥者。[31]

2001年，北美洲的觀鳥者預計花費了至少320以美元。[29]世界範圍內，其花費還在增加。土耳其曼尼亞斯湖的拉姆薩爾濕地（英語：Ramsar site）Kuşcenneti國家公園（英語：Kuşcenneti National Park）估計每年都會吸引大量觀鳥者，使其花費103,320,074美元。[32]帶導遊的觀鳥旅行已經是很常見的生意，至少有127家公司在提供遍佈全球的旅行。每人每次前去欠發達國家的旅行，平均都會花費4000美元，每次旅行約有12名參與者，每年共有150次這樣的旅行。有人建議，應利用其經濟潛力來推動保護工作。[33]

觀鳥旅遊曾被認為是全球增長最快的一種自然旅遊項目，旅遊者通常都對特定地點感興趣的，且受過良好教育或家境富裕。[34]除此之外，觀鳥旅行還被視作自然旅遊中的一個利基市場。觀鳥和其他利基旅遊市場有利於市場多元化，減輕旅遊市場季節性的影響，並為偏遠社區帶來經濟資源，從而實現經濟多元化，並增強對生物多樣性的保護。[34][35]據估計觀鳥生態旅遊每年為美國的經濟貢獻達410億美元。[31]而觀鳥生態旅遊產生的巨量資金替代了鳥類狩獵產生的稅收收入，同時鳥類狩獵產生的稅收已降至幾十年來的最低水平。[31]

觀鳥生態旅遊公司同樣促進了生態保護。Birding Ecotours同時提供國際旅行和國內旅行，並且會將至少10%的淨利潤捐贈給鳥類保護團體。[31]另一家旅行社Hardy Boat已向Project Puffin（英語：Project Puffin）捐贈20萬美元，以保護大西洋沿岸的海雀種群。 [31]

生態旅遊其中一個目的便是，觀鳥者到某地的旅行將有助於改善當地經濟，促進環境得到重視和保護。觀鳥者通過參與公眾科學，為生態保護做出貢獻，並且有助於構建和傳播環保知識。然而觀鳥活動會導致生態系統服務的滲透性增強（？），而觀鳥者對該服務有很強的依賴性。由於觀鳥者的存在，而且該群體在某些時候會格外堅持，也會影響鳥類繁殖、遷徙或棲息地點的吸引力，驚擾鳥類，並增加對鳥類及其棲息地的壓力（例如引誘鳥類離開藏身之處，通過發出叫聲或將鳥類及巢穴暴露給捕食者來迫使其出現等）。[36]除此之外，還可能干擾鳥類，影響當地環境、文化[22]和經濟。如何降低觀鳥旅遊的負面影響，提高其環境保護的價值，是目前研究的重點。[37]

活動

佛羅里達州薩尼貝爾J.N. "Ding" Darling National Wildlife Refuge（英語：J.N. "Ding" Darling National Wildlife Refuge）的觀鳥這

大多觀鳥者主要觀察當地鳥種（在其「local patch」（自留地？）觀鳥[38]），但有時也會專門旅行去觀看其他地區的鳥類。溫帶地區一年內觀鳥最活躍的時段是春季或秋季的遷徙季，這段時間內能夠看到最多樣的鳥類。期間大量鳥類會向北或向南飛行，前往過冬地或繁殖地。清晨通常是更好的觀鳥時間，因為鳥類相對活躍，而且藉助鳴叫也更容易發現鳥類。

根據地點和季節的不同，如森林中的自留地？、濕地或海岸都可以是不錯的觀鳥點。Seawatching，或稱「pelagic birding」，是觀鳥的一種，觀鳥者會前往海岸處的觀鳥點（如海岬「headland」？），觀看鳥類在海面上飛翔的場面。這也是一種遠洋觀鳥的形式，觀鳥者也會乘坐海上船隻尋找遠洋鳥類。

稀有鳥類的出現受到天氣影響很大。在英國，特定的風況可能會導致漂流遷徙（英語：drift migration），以及有大量鳥類從東部湧入。在北美，被困在颶風尾部的鳥類可能會被吹到內陸。[39]

從佩洛里塔尼山（英語：Peloritani）望向西西里的墨西拿海峽，這是一處典型的遷徙瓶頸

監測

觀鳥者有時會參與到鳥類種群大小和遷徙方式的調查中，有時會限制在單一物種。參與者可能會記錄下給定區域內的所有鳥類，如聖誕數鳥活動（英語：Christmas Bird Count），也可能會遵循精心設計的研究規範。此種公眾科學的活動有助於確定對鳥類生存構成威脅的環境因素，或者反過來作為環境保護措施的評估指標，衡量其保護瀕危物種或因美學或生態原因鼓勵物種繁殖的效果。[40]

這種愛好從更科學的角度來看，屬於鳥類學的一個方面，在英國由英國鳥類學基金會（英語：British Trust for Ornithology）協調組織。康奈爾鳥類學實驗室曾主持多次公眾科學項目，旨在追蹤北美洲鳥種的數量和分佈區域。這些調查能夠幫助科學家注意到每一年間發生的重大變化，這可能是由氣候改變、疾病、捕獵或其他因素導致。[41][42]

環境教育

摩洛哥學生正在納祖爾的潟湖旁觀鳥，這是由西班牙鳥類學學會（英語：Spanish Ornithological Society）組織的環境教育的組成部分

鳥類很容易見到，且具有獨特性，因而成為了環境教育和監測環境問題的重要工具。觀鳥能夠提升人們對於自然的敬畏，並使其意識到生態環境的脆弱。

競賽

觀鳥者正在觀察英國有記載以來第五隻白尾麥雞，攝於2007年6月6日，蘇格蘭Caerlaverock（英語：WWT Caerlaverock）

在部分地區，也會組織競爭性的觀鳥活動。[43]此類競賽會指定特殊的規則，鼓勵個人或隊伍在一定時間或區域內記錄大量的物種。部分觀鳥也會為了增加清單鳥種而參與此二里競賽。美國觀鳥協會最初就是為「列清單者（listers）」創立的俱樂部，但如今面向了更為廣泛的人群。不過，美國觀鳥協會還是會繼續發佈北美洲清單排行的官方年度報告（？）。

競爭性觀鳥活動包括：

  • 大日（Big Day）：各隊伍有24小時的時間來識別儘可能多的鳥種。
  • 大年：與大日類似，但參賽者可以是個人，而且需要做好投入大量時間金錢的準備。
  • Big Sit或Big Stay：觀鳥者必須在規定直徑的圓形範圍內觀察鳥類（例如17英尺[44]）。一旦看到鳥，觀鳥者就可以離開圓形範圍以便識別，但在圈外見到的新鳥種並不應記錄。
  • 聖誕數鳥活動（英語：Christmas Bird Count）：在12月14日至1月5日期間觀察到儘量多的鳥類。
  • World Series of Birding：一項年度觀鳥競賽，由新澤西奧杜邦學會組織。各隊伍將在24小時的時間段內相互競爭，觀察到最多數量的鳥種。
  • Migration Madness：一個持續數月，為慶祝鳥類遷徙的節日。Migration Madness的特色是Birdathon。Birdathon為2024年5月任意時間都可以進行的競賽，其目標為觀察到儘量多的鳥種。

社交網絡與組織

關注觀鳥活動的重要國家級或大洲級組織包括：英國的英國鳥類學基金會（英語：British Trust for Ornithology）和英國皇家鳥類保護協會、北美洲的美國觀鳥協會（英語：American Birding Association）和康奈爾鳥類學實驗室。此外在美國境內，還活躍着諸多州級組織和本地奧杜邦學會，而加拿大也有許多省級的組織。國際鳥盟是全球範圍內十分重要的鳥類保護組織聯盟。許多國家和較小的地區（州、省）都有「稀有鳥類委員會」，負責核查、接受或駁回由觀鳥者報告的稀有鳥類記錄。

裝備與方法

觀鳥者利用隱蔽的塔樓來更清楚地觀察到樹冠層植被上的鏡像。攝於芬蘭奧盧南部的利明卡灣。

觀鳥常用的設備包括雙筒望遠鏡、帶有三腳架的鑑識望遠鏡、智能手機、筆記本、一本或多本圖鑑等。為了隱蔽不驚動鳥類，獲得更好的視野，通常會選擇進入Hides (known as blinds in North America)或觀察塔。幾乎所有的光學製品製造商都會為觀鳥活動提供專門的雙筒望遠鏡，有些甚至整個品牌的客戶定位即觀鳥愛好者。

聲音設備

識別鳥類鳴聲是觀鳥中重要的一環。聲音信息可以幫助定位、觀察、定種，有時還可以用來分辨鳥類的性別。近年來聲學技術的發展使得便攜錄音設備體積減小、價格降低，觀鳥社群中的大多數人都能夠負擔得起。

數字音頻技術的非線性特性（？）相比於磁帶能夠更加靈活地選擇和獲取所需錄音。觀鳥者可以將在特定區域可能遇到的每種鳥鳴錄音都存儲在便攜口袋設備中，隨身帶到野外，並按照你選定順序檢索鳥鳴，進行播放比較。

隨着科技的發展，以科研和愛好為目的的觀鳥者都開始使用卷積神經網絡對錄音進行訓練，從而識別獲記錄特定鳥類鳴聲。[45][46]

攝影

攝影長久以來都是觀鳥的一部分，但在曾經超長焦鏡頭加上相機的高昂花費使得鳥類攝影只是少數人的愛好，通常帶有半專業性質。而經濟實惠的數碼相機的出現，使得這一愛好更加普及。這類相機可以與觀鳥鏡或雙筒望遠鏡配合使用（採用無焦攝影（英語：afocal photography）技術，被創作出了新詞"digiscoping"，使用雙筒望遠鏡時有時則稱為"digibinning"）。

錄像

As with the arrival of affordable digital cameras, the development of more compact and affordable digital video cameras has made them more attractive and accessible to the birding community. Cross-over, non-linear digital models now exist that take high-quality stills at acceptable resolutions, as well as being able to record and play audio and video. The ability to capture and reproduce not only the visual characteristics of a bird, but also its patterns of movement and its sound, has wide applications for birders in the field.

Portable media players

This class of product includes devices that can play (and in some cases record) a range of digital media, typically video, audio and still image files. Many modern digital cameras, mobile phones, and camcorders can be classified as portable media players. With the ability to store and play large quantities of information, pocket-sized devices allow a full birding multimedia library to be taken into the field and mobile Internet access makes obtaining and transmitting information possible in near real time.

Remote birdwatching

New technologies are allowing birdwatching activities to take place over the Internet, using robotic camera installations and mobile phones set up in remote wildlife areas. Projects such as CONE [1] allow users to observe and photograph birds over the web; similarly, robotic cameras set up in largely inhospitable areas are being used to attempt the first photographs of the rare ivory-billed woodpecker. These systems represent new technologies in the birdwatcher's toolkit.[47]

Communication

In the early 1950s, the only way of communicating new bird sightings was through the postal system and it was generally too late for the recipients to act on the information. In 1953 James Ferguson-Lees began broadcasting rare bird news on the radio in Eric Simms' Countryside program but this did not catch on. In the 1960s people began using the telephone and some people became hubs for communication. In the 1970s some cafés, such as that in Cley, Norfolk run by Nancy Gull, became centers for meeting and communication. This was replaced by telephone hotline services such as "Birdline" and "Bird Information Service".[48]

With the advent of the World Wide Web, birders have been using the Internet to convey information; this can be via mailing lists, forums, bulletin-boards, web-based databases and other social media.[49][50] While most birding lists are geographic in scope, there are special-interest lists that cater to bird-identification, 'twitchers', seabirds and raptor enthusiasts to name but a few. Messages can range from the serious to trivial, notifying others of rarities, questioning the taxonomy or identification of a species, discussing field guides and other resources, asking for advice and guidance, or organizing groups to help save habitats.

Occasional postings are mentioned in academic journals and therefore can be a valuable resource for professional and amateur birders alike.[51][52] One of the oldest, Birdchat[53] (based in the US), probably has the most subscribers, followed by the English-language fork of Eurobirdnet,[54] Birding-Aus[55] from Australia, SABirdnet[56] from South Africa and Orientalbirding.[57]

Mobile applications

The increasing availability of mobile devices in the 2010s allowed the smartphone to become a useful tool for birding. Mobile apps can be used as replacements for physical birding field guides, such as the digital version of the Sibley Guide to Birds and the official Audubon Society app.[58] Other apps utilize machine learning to automatically identifying birds from photographs and audio recordings, such as the Cornell Lab of Ornithology's Merlin Bird ID application and iNaturalist.[58][59]

Cornell Lab of Ornithology's eBird database is a popular tool used by birders to document their sightings. In addition to serving as a citizen science project used by ornithologists to document trends in bird populations,[60] it allows birders see recent reports by other birders and search by species and location.[61] Some species, including endangered species and others likely to be disrupted by increased human activity, are designated "sensitive species" by eBird and have locations of sightings hidden from the general public.[62]

Code of conduct

As the numbers of birdwatchers increases, there is growing concern about the impact of birdwatching on the birds and their habitat. Birdwatching etiquette is evolving in response to this concern.[63] Some examples of birdwatching etiquette include promoting the welfare of birds and their environment, limiting use of photography, pishing and playback devices to mitigate stress caused to birds, maintaining a distance away from nests and nesting colonies, and respecting private property.[64]

The lack of definite evidence, except arguably in the form of photographs, makes birding records difficult to prove but birdwatchers strive to build trust in their identification.[65] One of the few major disputes was the case of the Hastings Rarities.

Socio-psychology

參見：Biophilia hypothesis

Ethologist Nikolaas Tinbergen considers birdwatching to be an expression of the male hunting instinct, while Simon Baron-Cohen links it with a male tendency for "systemizing".[66] There have been suggestions that identification of birds may be a form of gaining status which has been compared with Kula valuables noted in Papua New Guinean cultures.[67]

A study of the motivations for birdwatching in New York concluded that initial motivations were largely similar in males and females, but males who participate actively in birding are more motivated by "sharing knowledge" with others, and active female birders are more motivated by their "intellectual" interest in studying birds, and by the "challenge" of identifying new and rare birds and improving their skills.[68] Another study suggested that males lean towards competitive birding, while females prefer recreational birdwatching.[69] While the representation of women has always been low,[70] it has been pointed out that nearly 90% of all birdwatchers in the United States are white, with only a few African Americans.[71] Other minority groups have formed organizations to support fellow birders, such as the Gay Birders Club[72] and Birding For All, formerly the Disabled Birders Association.[70][73]

The study of birdwatching has been of interest to students of the sociology of science.[74] People who have nature-based experiences report better well-being and lower psychological distress than those who do not, and birdwatching in particular was found to have higher gains in subjective well-being and more reduction in distress than more generic nature exposure, such as walks.[75][76]

Famous birdwatchers

參見：List of birdwatchers

There are about 10,000 species of bird and only a small number of people have seen more than 7,000. Many birdwatchers have spent their entire lives trying to see all the bird species of the world.[77] The first person who started this is said to be Stuart Keith.[78]

Birders have been known to go to great lengths and some have lost their lives in the process. Phoebe Snetsinger spent her family inheritance travelling to various parts of the world while suffering from a malignant melanoma, surviving an attack and rape in New Guinea before dying in a road accident in Madagascar.[79] She saw as many as 8,400 species. The birdwatcher David Hunt who was leading a bird tour in Corbett National Park was killed by a tiger in February 1985.[80][81] In 1971, Ted Parker (who later died in an air crash in Ecuador) travelled around North America and saw 626 species.[82] This record was beaten by Kenn Kaufman in 1973 who travelled 69,000 miles and saw 671 species and spent less than a thousand dollars.[83]

In 2012, Tom Gullick, an Englishman who lives in Spain, became the first birdwatcher to log over 9,000 species.[84] In 2008, two British birders, Alan Davies and Ruth Miller, gave up their jobs, sold their home and put everything they owned into a year-long global birdwatching adventure about which they a wrote a book called The Biggest Twitch. They logged their 4,341st species on 31 December 2008, in Ecuador.[85] Noah Strycker recorded 6,042 species during 2015, overtaking Davies and Miller.[86] In 2016, Arjan Dwarshuis became the world-record holder for most species seen during the span of one year, logging 6,852 bird species in 40 countries.[87]

In early February of 2024, Peter Kaestner became the first birder to log over 10,000 species, a record surrounded by much controversy as he was initially claimed to be beaten by Jason Mann who later conceded defeated.[88]

Birdwatching literature, field guides and television programs have been popularized by birders such as Pete Dunne and Bill Oddie.

In media

The 2011 film The Big Year depicted three birders competing in an American Birding Association Area big year, and the 2019 film Birders is a short documentary.

See also

Similar activities

Institutions:

註釋

  1. ^ 意為「打鈎」，即記錄在在個人記錄上
  2. ^ 十分有限的範圍內的清單，如你家後院

參考資料

  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Dunne, Pete. Pete Dunne on Bird Watching. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 2003. ISBN 978-0-395-90686-6. OCLC 50228297. 
  2. ^ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Oddie, Bill. Bill Oddie's Little Black Bird Book. Frome & London: Butler & Tanner Ltd. 1980. ISBN 978-0-413-47820-7. OCLC 8960462. 
  3. ^ Moss 2004:33
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 Dooley, Sean. Anoraks to Zitting Cisticola. Allen & Unwin. 2007. ISBN 978-1-74175-272-4. OCLC 174092376. 
  5. ^ Poole, Steven. Why the term 'twitch' ruffles feathers. The Guardian. 19 January 2019. 
  6. ^ Law, John; Lynch, Michael. Lists, Field Guides, and the Descriptive Organization of Seeing: Birdwatching as an Exemplary Observational Activity. Human Studies. 1988, 11 (2/3): 271–303. ISSN 0163-8548. JSTOR 20009028. S2CID 144536028. doi:10.1007/BF00177306. 
  7. ^ Dudley, Steve; Benton, Tim; Fraser, Peter; Ryan, John. Rare Birds Day by Day. T. & A. D. Poyser. 2010. ISBN 978-1-4081-3795-6. 
  8. ^ Moss 2004:10
  9. ^ Moss 2004:72
  10. ^ Moss 2004:88
  11. ^ Barrow, Mark. A Passion for Birds. Princeton University Press. 1998: 156–157. ISBN 978-0-691-04402-6. 
  12. ^ Shearin, Gloria. 2008. Neltje Blanchan. In: Patterson, D., Thompson, R., Bryson, S., et al., Early American Nature Writers. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, ISBN 0313346801. pp.62–69.
  13. ^ Dunlap, Thomas R. 2011. In the Field, Among the Feathered: A History of Birders & Their Guides, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0199734593. p. 47.
  14. ^ Moss 2004:104–106
  15. ^ Macdonald, H. What makes you a scientist is the way you look at things: ornithology and the observer 1930–1955. Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences. 2002, 33 (1): 53. doi:10.1016/S1369-8486(01)00034-6. 
  16. ^ Johnson, Kristin. The Ibis: Transformations in a Twentieth Century British Natural History Journal. Journal of the History of Biology. 2004, 37 (3): 515–555. S2CID 83849594. doi:10.1007/s10739-004-1499-3. 
  17. ^ Moss 2004:128
  18. ^ Moss 2004:233–234
  19. ^ Moss 2004:234–235
  20. ^ Moss 2004:250
  21. ^ Moss 2004:252–253
  22. ^ 22.0 22.1 Aerts, R.; Lerouge, F.; November, E. Birds of forests and open woodlands in the highlands of Dogu'a Tembien. In: Nyssen J., Jacob, M., Frankl, A. (Eds.). Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District. SpringerNature. 2019. ISBN 978-3-030-04954-6. 
  23. ^ Gómez de Silva, Héctor; Alvarado Reyes, Ernesto. Breve historia de la observación de aves en México en el siglo XX y principios del siglo XXI (PDF). Huitzil. 2010, 11: 9–20. S2CID 252627895. doi:10.28947/hrmo.2010.11.1.109. （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於23 July 2011）. 
  24. ^ Connell, John. Birdwatching, Twitching and Tourism: towards an Australian perspective. Australian Geographer. 2009, 40 (2): 203–217. Bibcode:2009AuGeo..40..203C. ISSN 0004-9182. S2CID 143560339. doi:10.1080/00049180902964942. 
  25. ^ The History of Audubon and Bird Conservation | Audubon. www.audubon.org. [2024-04-02] （英語）. 
  26. ^ Moss 2004:265
  27. ^ Kerlinger, P. Birding economics and birder demographics studies as conservation tools in Proc. Status and Managem. of Neotrop. Migr. Birds. eds. D. Finch and P. Stangel (PDF). Rocky Mntn For. and Range Exper. Station, Fort Collins, CO. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rept. RM-229. 1993: 32–38. 
  28. ^ Cordell, H. Ken; Herbert, Nancy G. The Popularity of Birding is Still Growing (PDF). Birding. 2002: 54–61. （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於28 October 2008）. 
  29. ^ 29.0 29.1 Pullis La Rouche, G. Birding in the United States: a demographic and economic analysis. Addendum to the 2001 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting and Wildlife-Associated Recreation. Report 2001-1. (PDF). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Arlington, Virginia. 2003. 
  30. ^ Fågelskådare bidrar med 36 miljarder dollar till USA:s ekonomi. Swedish Ornithologic Society. 2009. （原始內容存檔於25 March 2010）. 
  31. ^ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4 Could a birding boom in the U.S. help conservation take flight?. Travel. 2 September 2021 [29 November 2021]. （原始內容存檔於2 September 2021）. 
  32. ^ Gürlük, S.; Rehber, E. A travel cost study to estimate recreational value for a bird refuge at Lake Manyas, Turkey. Journal of Environmental Management. 2008, 88 (4): 1350–1360. PMID 17766033. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2007.07.017. 
  33. ^ Sekercioglu, Cagan H. Conservation through commodification (PDF). Birding. 2003, 35 (4): 394–402. 
  34. ^ 34.0 34.1 Schwoerer, Tobias; Dawson, Natalie G. Small sight—Big might: Economic impact of bird tourism shows opportunities for rural communities and biodiversity conservation. PLOS ONE. 6 July 2022, 17 (7): e0268594. Bibcode:2022PLoSO..1768594S. PMC 9258859 可免費查閱. PMID 35793337. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0268594 可免費查閱. 
  35. ^ Market Analysis of Bird-Based Tourism: A Focus on the U.S. Market to Latin America and the Caribbean Including Fact Sheets on The Bahamas, Belize, Guatemala, Paraguay (PDF). responsibletravel.org. [29 November 2021]. （原始內容存檔 (PDF)於29 November 2021）. 
  36. ^ Kronenberg, Jakub. Environmental Impacts of the Use of Ecosystem Services: Case Study of Birdwatching. Environmental Management. 1 September 2014, 54 (3): 617–630. Bibcode:2014EnMan..54..617K. PMC 4129236 可免費查閱. PMID 24993794. S2CID 7657835. doi:10.1007/s00267-014-0317-8. 
  37. ^ Sekercioglu, Cagan H. Impacts of birdwatching on human and avian communities (PDF). Environmental Conservation. 2002, 29 (3): 282–289. Bibcode:2002EnvCo..29..282S. S2CID 86375465. doi:10.1017/S0376892902000206. 
  38. ^ Eubanks, T. L. Bare-naked birding (PDF). Birding. 2007 [22 December 2011]. （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於19 November 2011）. 
  39. ^ Moss, Stephen. Birds and Weather A Birdwatcher's Guide. London: Hamlyn. 1995. ISBN 978-0-600-58679-1. OCLC 33207495. 
  40. ^ Robbins, Jim. Paying Farmers to Welcome Birds. New York Times. 14 April 2014 [5 February 2016]. 
  41. ^ An introduction to birdwatching (PDF). Texas Parks and Wildlife Department. 2003. 
  42. ^ Greenwood, J. J. D. Citizens, science and bird conservation (PDF). Journal of Ornithology. 2007, 148 (1): 77–124. S2CID 21914046. doi:10.1007/s10336-007-0239-9. （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於19 July 2011）. 
  43. ^ Sheard, Kenneth. A Twitch in Time Saves Nine: Birdwatching, Sport, and Civilizing Processes. Sociology of Sport Journal. 1999, 16 (3): 181–205. doi:10.1123/ssj.16.3.181. 
  44. ^ Dunne, P. (2007). Big Day Big Stay. Birder's World, 21(5), 18–21.
  45. ^ Artificial intelligence enhances monitoring of threatened marbled murrelet. Oregon State University. 2 May 2024 [15 May 2024] –透過Science Daily. 
  46. ^ Duarte, Adam; Weldy, Matthew J.; et al. Passive acoustic monitoring and convolutional neural networks facilitate high-resolution and broadscale monitoring of a threatened species. Ecological Indicators. May 2024, 162 [15 May 2024]. doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2024.112016 可免費查閱. 
  47. ^ Chambers, Charlotte N. L. "Well its remote, I suppose, innit?" The relational politics of bird-watching through the CCTV lens. Scottish Geographical Journal. 2007, 123 (2): 122–134. Bibcode:2007ScGJ..123..122C. S2CID 128827585. doi:10.1080/14702540701624568. 
  48. ^ Moss 2004:267–275
  49. ^ Montague, Peter; Pellerano, Maria B. Toxicology and environmental digital resources from and for citizen groups. Toxicology. 2001, 157 (1–2): 77–88. PMID 11164976. doi:10.1016/S0300-483X(00)00342-5. 
  50. ^ Still, Kaisa; Isomursu, Minna; Vainamo, Soili. Exploring the integration of community communication technologies: case birdwatchers. International Journal of Web Based Communities. 2005, 1 (3): 346–359. doi:10.1504/IJWBC.2005.006932. 
  51. ^ Hailman, J. P. Computer networking in ornithology in Computer Networking and Scholarly Communication in the Twenty-first-Century University (Eds. Teresa M. Harrison, Timothy Stephen). SUNY Press. 1996: 167–175. ISBN 978-0-7914-2853-5. 
  52. ^ Newton, Ian; Kavanagh, Rodney; Olsen, Jerry; Taylor, Iain. Ecology and Conservation of Owls: Proceedings of the Owls 2000, Canberra, Australia. CSIRO Publishing. 2002: 353. ISBN 978-0-643-06794-3. 
  53. ^ BirdChat Guidelines. [6 August 2008]. （原始內容存檔於12 May 2008）. 
  54. ^ EBN Info Page. [6 August 2008]. （原始內容存檔於20 June 2008）. 
  55. ^ Birding-Au. [26 October 2006]. （原始內容存檔於17 September 2006）. 
  56. ^ Sabirdnet Info Page. [6 August 2008]. （原始內容存檔於23 April 2008）. 
  57. ^ OBC | club news | email groups. [6 August 2008]. （原始內容存檔於4 July 2008）. 
  58. ^ 58.0 58.1 The Best Birding Apps and Field Guides. www.audubon.org. 2015-08-04 [2023-11-03] （英語）. 
  59. ^ Bowman, Dale. App-solutely enhancing outdoors experience: iNaturalist, Seek and Merlin Bird ID apps; plus Stray Cast. Chicago Sun-Times. 2021-07-08 [2023-11-03] （英語）. 
  60. ^ We Helped Scientists Track Birds This Summer. The New York Times. 2023-09-22 [2023-11-03]. 
  61. ^ McKee, Jenny. A Beginner's Guide to Using eBird. www.audubon.org. 2022-10-07 [2023-11-03] （英語）. 
  62. ^ Minor, Nick. eBird Is Now Censoring Sightings for 325 At-Risk Species. www.audubon.org. 2018-03-07 [2023-11-03] （英語）. 
  63. ^ Bumstead, Pat. The Art of Birdwatching. Simply Wild Publications Inc. 2004. ISBN 978-0-9689278-2-3. OCLC 56329274. 
  64. ^ Code of Birding Ethics. American Birding Association. 3 January 2020 [12 December 2022]. 
  65. ^ Donnelly, Peter. Take my word for it: Trust in the context of birding and mountaineering. Qualitative Sociology. 1994, 17 (3): 215–241. S2CID 144678537. doi:10.1007/BF02422253. 
  66. ^ Maddox, Bruno. Blinded by Science: Birding Brains. Discover. 2006, 27 (12): 66–67. 
  67. ^ Liep, John. Airborne kula:The appropriation of birds by Danish ornithologists. Anthropology Today. 2001, 17 (5): 10–15. doi:10.1111/1467-8322.00077. 
  68. ^ Sali, M.; Kuehn, D.; Zhang, L. Motivations for Male and Female Birdwatchers in New York State. Human Dimensions of Wildlife. 2008, 13 (3): 187–200. Bibcode:2008HDW....13..187S. S2CID 143802893. doi:10.1080/10871200801982795. 
  69. ^ C. B., Cooper; Smith, J. A. Gender patterns in bird-related recreation in the USA and UK. Ecology and Society. 2010, 15 (4): 4. doi:10.5751/ES-03603-150404 可免費查閱. 
  70. ^ 70.0 70.1 Moss 2004:316–330
  71. ^ Robinson, J. C. Relative Prevalence of African Americans among Bird Watchers. General Technical Report PSW-GTR-191 (PDF). U.S. Department of Agriculture–Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. Albany, Calif. 2005. 
  72. ^ Home page. Gay Birders' Club. 
  73. ^ About Birding For All. Birding for All. [19 June 2023]. 
  74. ^ Law, J.; Lynch, M. Lynch, M.; Woolgar, S. , 編. Lists, Field Guides, and the Descriptive Organization of Seeing: Birdwatching as an Exemplary Observational Activity in Representation in Scientific Practice. Cambridge: MIT Press. 1990: 267–299. 
  75. ^ Birdwatching can help students improve mental health, reduce distress. North Carolina State University. 3 May 2024 [15 May 2024] –透過Science Daily. 
  76. ^ Peterson, M. Nils; Larson, Lincoln R.; et al. Birdwatching linked to increased psychological well-being on college campuses: A pilot-scale experimental study. Journal of Environmental Psychology. June 2024, 96 [15 May 2024]. doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2024.102306. 
  77. ^ Koeppel, Dan. To See Every Bird on Earth. Hudson Street Publisher. 2005. ISBN 978-1-4193-3299-9. OCLC 68757783. 
  78. ^ Moss 2004:261
  79. ^ Snetsinger, Phoebe. Birding on Borrowed Time. American Birding Association. 2003. ISBN 978-1-878788-41-2. 
  80. ^ Breeden, Stanley; Wright, Belinda. Through the Tiger's Eyes: A Chronicle of India's Wildlife. Ten Speed Press. 1997: 173. ISBN 978-0-89815-847-2. 
  81. ^ Hunt, David. Confessions of a Scilly Birdman. Croom Helm. 1985. ISBN 978-0-7099-3724-1. OCLC 12080015. 
  82. ^ Moss 2004:242
  83. ^ Moss 2004:240–241
  84. ^ McCarthy, Michael. World's greatest birdwatcher sets a new record. The Independent. 15 October 2012 [16 October 2012]. 
  85. ^ Davies, Alan; Miller, Ruth. The Biggest Twitch: Around the World in 4,000 Birds. A & C Black. 2010: 298. ISBN 978-1-4081-2387-4. 
  86. ^ Strycker, Noah. Birding without Borders. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. 2017: 255. ISBN 978-0-544-55814-4. 
  87. ^ Dwarshuis, Arjan. The (Big) Year That Flew By. Chelsea Green Publishing. 2023: 228. ISBN 978-1-64502-191-9. 
  88. ^ https://explorersweb.com/birding-controversy-two-birders-claim-10000-species-record-on-the-same-day/

Bibliography

查看維基詞典中的詞條「birdwatching」。
維基共享資源上的相關多媒體資源：Karoke Cirno/sandbox 2
維基導遊上的相關旅行指南：birdwatching



{{Birds}} {{Birds in culture}} [[Category:Birdwatching| ]] [[Category:Outdoor recreation]] [[Category:Observation hobbies]]

[2]

取自 "https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Karoke_Cirno/sandbox_2&oldid=84186861"