酒精與癌症
這篇酒精與癌症(英語:Alcohol and cancer)用來討論酒精和某些人類癌症間的關係。
酒精飲料被世界衛生組織(WHO)所屬國際癌症研究機構(IARC)列為一類致癌物(對於人類)。IARC將攝取酒精飲料歸類為乳癌(女性)、大腸癌、喉癌、肝癌、食道癌、口腔癌、和頭頸癌的病因;並列為胰臟癌的可能原因。[2]
全世界3.6%的癌症病例和3.5%的癌症死亡歸因於飲酒(特別是乙醇)。[3]而根據一篇發表在2020年刺胳針期刊的報導,全球增加的癌症病例中,可歸因為飲酒的已佔4.1%。[4]
有些國家導入酒精包裝警告信息,告知消費者有關酒精和癌症間關聯的資訊。[7]
酒精飲料相關產業除推動廢除酒精飲料附加癌症警告標籤的法律之外,[8]還積極運作,試圖誤導公眾關於飲酒致癌的風險。[9]
由酒精相關癌症導致的死亡率
澳大利亞:澳大利亞在2009年所做的一項研究發現,當地每年有2,100人死於與酒精有關的癌症。[10]
歐洲:在2011年所做的一項研究發現,男性癌症有10分之1,和女性癌症有33分之1,是由過去或當前的酒精攝取所引起。[11][12]
酒精作為致癌物和促進致癌物
IARC把酒精與砷、苯、和石棉同樣歸類為一類致癌物。評估指出「有足夠證據證明酒精飲料對人類有致癌作用。……酒精飲料對人類有致癌作用(一類)。」 [13]
機制
乙醛
肝臟在分解乙醇後產生乙醛。肝臟通常可把99%的乙醛排除。肝臟平均每小時可處理7克乙醇。例如需要12個小時把一瓶葡萄酒中的乙醇排除,而導致飲者有12小時或更長時間接觸到乙醛。一項針對818名重度飲酒者的研究發現,那些因醇脫氫酶基因缺陷,而比正常人接觸到更多乙醛的人,他們罹患上消化道和肝癌的風險更大。[14]飲酒與不同類型的癌症之間存在許多關聯。一份美國在2009年的數據顯示,有3.5%的癌症死亡人數是源自飲酒的關係。[15]
評論
G. Pöschl和H. K. Seitz兩位研究者在2004年發表一篇評論中列出酒精作為致癌物的可能機制如下:[16]
- 酒精對局部的影響
- 代謝為乙醛(可能會具有生理意義的水準,達到導致基因突變的程度[17])
- 細胞色素P-4502E1(CYP2E1)的誘導
- 營養缺乏
- 與類視色素的交互作用
- 酒精及甲基化
- 酒精和免疫監視(請參考免疫)
而研究學者Paolo Boffetta和Mia Hashibe也提出一個有重疊性質的清單:
- 乙醛的產生,乙醛是種弱突變劑和致癌物質
- 誘導細胞色素P-4502E1和相關的氧化應激,把前致癌物轉化為致癌物質
- 耗盡S-腺苷甲硫氨酸,而誘導整體DNA低甲基化
- 誘導抑制性鳥嘌呤核苷酸交換因子調節蛋白,以及細胞外信號調節激酶(絲裂原活化蛋白激酶信號傳導)組成的生產增加
- 鐵的累積和相關的氧化應激
- 腫瘤抑制基因乳癌一號基因的失活,以及雌激素反應性的增加(主要在乳房中)
- 維生素A酸代謝障礙[18]
Paolo Boffetta和Mia Hashibe列出可能的機制,包括:
同時吸菸和飲酒的人罹患口腔癌、氣管癌、和食道癌的風險會高得多。研究顯示這類人罹患此類癌症的風險是既不吸菸也不飲酒人的35倍。這一證據可能表明酒精和菸草的相關致癌物之間,存在交互致癌的作用。[20][21]
乙醇的局部致癌作用
與飲酒相關的癌症風險,發生在與酒精密切接觸組織的機率更高,例如口腔、咽部、和食道。這是因為乙醇是種經證實的誘變劑,此外,肝臟產生的乙醇代謝物(乙醛)具有高度致癌性,從而解釋局部(口腔癌、喉癌、食道癌)和遠端移植癌症(皮膚、肝臟,乳癌)發生的原因。眾人皆知酒精飲料中原本存有的酒精濃度就會導致細胞死亡。很少細胞能在細胞培養時暴露於5–10%的乙醇之下超過1小時,或是能暴露於30–40%的乙醇達到15秒,而能存活的細胞可能會發生基因變化,導致癌變。但最近的證據顯示,乙醇對口腔、咽部、和食道內壁細胞的細胞毒性作用會激活位於黏膜深層幹細胞的分裂,以取代死亡細胞。每次幹細胞在分裂時,它們都有機會碰到與細胞分裂相關,但無法避免的錯誤(例如DNA複製過程中出現的突變,和有絲分裂過程中發生的染色體畸變),並且也變得非常容易受到DNA損傷劑(例如乙醛和菸草致癌物)的影響。飲酒促使幹細胞為維持體內平衡而分裂,累積的結果會增加個人罹患口腔癌、咽癌、和食道癌的風險。因為乙醇的細胞毒性有濃度依賴性,這些癌症的風險不僅會隨著乙醇攝取量的增加而增加,而且會隨著濃度的增加而增加;飲用一盎司未稀釋過的威士忌,會比混入非酒精飲料後再飲用更容易致癌。乙醇的局部細胞毒性作用也可用來解釋那些已知的酒精和菸草,對這些癌症風險的協同作用。[22]
上皮細胞間質轉化
一項研究發現,酒精會刺激上皮細胞間質轉化(EMT),造成普通癌細胞變成更具侵襲性的形式,並開始擴散到全身。[23][24]
酒精對已發生癌症的影響
一項關於酒精攝取對肝硬化患者的肝細胞癌(HCC)腫瘤生長影響的研究發現,酒精會影響腫瘤體積的倍增時間 (TVDT)[25]
一項對雞胚胎的研究顯示,酒精透過促進刺激腫瘤血管發育的生長因子,而刺激腫瘤的生長。[26]在2006年一項在實驗小鼠的研究顯示,適度飲酒會透過稱為血管新生的過程導致腫瘤變得更大。[27][28]
一項讓老鼠攝取大量酒精的研究顯示,酒精會加速體內脂肪流失和抑制免疫活動,癌症得以加速生長。[29]
基因變異與癌症風險
一項研究發現,「醇脫氫酶ADH1C等位基因和基因型ADH1C*1/1有更高的頻率存在酒精相關癌症患者的體內……」[14]一項歐洲研究發現有兩種基因變異針對口腔癌和喉癌可提供「顯著」的保護。[30]酒精是一種已知的卟啉源化學物質。幾項歐洲研究發現遺傳性肝紫質症(卟啉症)與HCC的易感性有關聯。HCC的典型危險因素不一定會與急性肝紫質症,特別是急性間歇性紫質症、異位型紫質症、和遺傳性糞紫質症一起出現。緩發性皮膚病變紫質症也與HCC有關,但是種典型的風險因素,包括有肝炎病毒、血色沉著病、和酒精性肝硬化存在的證據。酪胺酸血症第一型是種影響血紅素代謝途徑中第二種酶酪氨酸代謝的遺傳性疾病,與年輕人群(包括兒童)罹患HCC的高度風險有關。[31]
特定癌症的危險因素
適度飲酒會增加風險
一項研究發現,「女性增量,但仍是適度飲酒的模式被確定與罹患口腔癌和咽癌、食道癌、喉癌、直腸癌、乳癌、和肝癌的風險增加有關……」。[32]
口腔癌、食道癌、咽癌、和喉癌
攝取任何數量的酒精都是口腔癌、食道癌、咽癌、和喉癌的危險因素。美國國家癌症研究所指出「飲酒會增加男性和女性罹患口腔癌、食道癌、咽癌、喉癌、和肝癌的風險,……總體而言,任何酒精攝入量(輕度;每人每週<2標準單位葡萄酒)都會增加高於基線的風險。而適度飲酒(每天1標準單位葡萄酒)會讓風險顯著增加,每週飲酒超過7標準單位的人的風險最高。(1標準單位酒的定義為12盎司普通啤酒、5盎司葡萄酒,或是1.5盎司80度的蒸餾酒。)…此外,把酒精與菸草一起使用,比單獨使用任何一種都更危險,因為這樣會進一步增加罹患口腔癌、喉癌、和食道癌的機率。「[33]2010年美國聯邦膳食指南把適度飲酒定義為每天女性最多1標準單位,男性最多2標準單位。重度飲酒的定義是任何一天女性飲酒超過3標準單位,或每週飲酒超過7標準單位,任何一天男性飲酒超過4標準單位,每週飲酒超過14標準單位。
國際頭頸癌流行病學聯盟((INHANCE))就此問題協調進行一項綜合分析 。[34]關於喉癌和飲料類型的研究所得的結論是:「這項研究顯示,由於義大利人經常飲用葡萄酒,葡萄酒是與喉癌風險最密切相關的飲料。」[35]
對1966年至2006年之間所發表的流行病學文獻做評論,得出的結論是:
- 戒酒後的頭兩年,罹患食道癌的風險幾乎增加一倍,這種急劇增加的原因可能是因為有些人會在疾病症狀出現時才停止飲酒。然而,在較長期的戒酒之後,發病的風險迅速且顯著的降低。
- 頭頸癌的風險僅在戒酒10年後會顯著降低。
- 戒酒超過20年後,這兩種癌症發病的風險與從來不喝酒的人相似。[36][37]
有項研究得出的結論是,每天每多喝一標準單位的酒精飲料,口腔癌和咽癌的發病率就會增加千分之1。食道癌和喉癌的發病率會增加千分之0.7。[32]
一項在2008年進行的研究顯示乙醛與口腔癌有關聯。[38][39]
乳癌
每天平均飲用2標準單位的女性,與平均每天飲酒1標準單位的相比,罹患乳癌的風險高出8%。[43]有研究得出的結論是,每天每多喝1標準單位,乳癌的發病率就會增加千分之11。[32]英國的研究資料顯示,如果飲酒量減少到非常低的水準(即每週少於1標準單位),每年可減少大約6%(3.2%至8.8%)的乳癌發生率。[43]中度至大量飲用酒精飲料(每週至少3至4標準單位)與乳癌復發風險增加1.3倍相關聯。此外,任何數量的飲酒都與乳癌倖存者的復發風險顯著增加有關聯。[44][45]
大腸癌
飲酒可能是大腸癌早期發病的原因之一。[46]酒精作為導致大腸癌的因素,對於男性而言是證據確鑿,對女性而言則為具有可能性。[47]
美國國家衛生院、[48]美國國家癌症研究所、[49]英國慈善機構「癌症研究」(Cancer Research UK),[50]美國癌症協會、[51]梅奧醫院、[52]美國癌症臨床腫瘤學協會(American Society of Clinical Oncology)[53]和紀念斯隆-凱特琳癌症中心[54]均把酒精列為危險因素。世界國際癌症研究基金會(WCRF)的小組報告發現,每天攝入30克以上的純酒精,會增加男性罹患直腸癌的風險,證據「令人信服」。[55]美國國家癌症研究所指出,「大量飲酒也可能增加罹患直腸癌的風險」[56]
在2011年所做的一項綜合分析發現,飲酒與直腸癌風險增加有關聯。[57]
肝癌
酒精是肝癌的危險因素,通過肝硬化而形成。[58][59][60]「肝硬化是由肝臟內的疤痕堆疊所引起,最常見的原因是長期酒精不當使用,....。」 [61]
「肝硬化患者中大約有5%會罹患肝癌。肝硬化是種因為酒精濫用,肝細胞壞死,被疤痕組織取代而發生的疾病,……」[62]
美國國家酒精濫用和酗酒研究所(NIAAA)報告說,「長期大量飲酒,在許多情況下與原發性肝癌有關聯。」然而,無論是由酒精還是其他因素所引起的肝硬化,都被認為會誘發癌症。」[63][64]
「每天喝5標準單位或更多的酒,罹患肝癌的機會會顯著增加」(國家癌症研究所)。
有項研究得出的結論是每天每多喝一標準單位的酒,肝癌的發病率就會增加千分之0.7。[32]
肝癌在美國相對不常見,每100,000人中罹患肝癌的約有2人,但有些研究人員發現其中多達36%的病例與過量飲酒有關聯[20][65]「總體而言,罹患HCC的人之中,有61%是由HCV(C型肝炎病毒)引起,有13%是由HBV(B型肝炎病毒)引起,而有18%是因為大量飲酒所引起。「[66]義大利北部布雷西亞省的一項研究所得的結論是:「基於人群的歸因風險(AR)分類,大量飲酒似乎是罹患HCC的唯一最相關原因(AR:45%),其次是感染到HCV(AR:36%)和HBV(AR:22%)。」[67]
肺癌
每天飲酒超過2標準單位與罹患肺癌的風險略有增加有關聯。[68]R. Curtis Ellison MD在評論Freudenheim等人所發表的研究作品時,寫道:「這項研究與其他研究一樣,顯示大量飲酒(每天2標準單位以上)與肺癌風險之間存在微弱的正相關。」[69][70]
皮膚癌
胃癌
「飲酒對於胃癌、大腸癌、肝癌、女性乳癌、和卵巢癌的風險也會產生顯著統計學上的增加。」[72] 「雖然有把酒精作為胃癌的病因做過廣泛的研究,但沒確鑿的證據顯示風險會增加。但至少有三項研究的結果顯示,大量飲酒可能會增加重度吸菸者罹患胃癌的風險。」[73][74][75]
在台灣的一項研究所得的結論是:「……吸菸可能在胃癌生成的最初期發揮危害最大的作用,而飲酒可能會促進這種發展。」 [73]
在挪威有項研究發現,「沒發現在不同程度的酒精暴露與胃癌風險之間存在統計學上的顯著關聯,但同時大量吸菸(每天>20次)和酒精(每14天>5次)會增加罹患胃癌的風險,而罹患非賁門胃癌的風險幾乎是非使用者的5倍。」[75]
每天攝入50克或更多的酒精會增加風險
子宮內膜癌
酒精已被確定為罹患子宮內膜癌的危險因素。[76]然而,兩者間關聯的數據卻相互矛盾。低至中度酒精攝取量關聯的數據(每天少於2標準單位)與風險增加無關,但在高攝取量時則存在關聯。[77][78] 「我們的結果是每天攝取相當於2標準單位或更多的酒精,會增更年期後婦女罹患子宮內膜癌的風險。」 [79] 「總而言之,我們的結論顯示低飲酒量(每天最多1標準單位),不太可能顯著影響到罹患子宮內膜癌的風險。」[80]
膽癌
酒精被認為是罹患膽癌的危險因素。[81]有證據顯示大量飲酒與膽癌有關聯。[82][83]男性罹患這種癌症的風險可能高於女性。[84]
卵巢癌
「因此,這項研究的結果顯示攝取相對較高的酒精(每天40克或是更多)可能會導致上皮性卵巢癌風險適度增加。」 [85]「也發現飲酒與卵巢癌、和攝護腺癌之間存在關聯,但僅限於每天攝入50克到100克的人。」[86]「也和罹患胃癌、大腸癌、肝癌、女性乳癌和卵巢癌的風險,有顯著統計學上的增加。」[72]
「因此,這項匯總分析的結果並未支持適度飲酒與卵巢癌風險之間有關聯。」 [87]
攝護腺癌
「來自相關醫療專業人員後續研究的數據顯示,總體酒精攝取量與攝護腺癌風險之間只有微弱的關聯,而紅酒攝入量與前列腺癌風險之間根本沒有關聯。」 [88]
根據一項在2001年發表的綜合分析發現,男性每天飲酒超過50克酒精的風險,增加數字雖小,但夠顯著,男性每天飲酒超過100克的風險會略高。[89]自那項分析以來,美國的隊列研究發現男性飲用適量的烈酒和「暴飲」會增加風險,[90]但適度飲用啤酒或是葡萄酒,與風險增加無關聯。[91][92][93]
每天飲酒達到50克到100克也與卵巢癌和前列腺癌有關聯。[86]然而有項研究的結論是適度飲酒會增加罹患攝護腺癌的風險。喝烈酒(而非葡萄酒或啤酒),與攝護腺癌呈正相關。「[91]
福瑞德哈金森腫瘤研究中心發現,每週喝4標準單位或更多紅酒的男性患攝護腺癌的風險降低50%。他們「沒發現飲用啤酒或烈酒有顯著的影響 - 無論是積極性或是消極性 - 並且白葡萄酒不會持續性降低風險,這表示紅酒中必有其他類型的酒類所缺乏的有益化合物質。而這種化合物或許是種叫做白藜蘆醇的抗氧化劑,在紅葡萄皮中含量豐富。」[92][94]
對2009年發表的研究所做的綜合分析發現,每天僅飲用2標準單位的酒精飲料會讓罹患攝護腺癌的風險增加20%。[95][96]
小腸癌
一項針對小腸癌患者的研究報告稱,飲酒與此部位的腺癌和惡性類癌有關聯。[97]
「在男性和女性中,大量飲酒者 (每天超過80克),相對於適度飲酒者和不飲酒者,風險會顯著增加3倍。」 [98]
「同時飲酒和吸菸,並不會增加小腸腺癌的風險......雖然目前所得的數據與菸草或酒精的主要影響不一致,但這些因素與小腸癌之間的適度關聯可能被隨機因素所掩蓋。」[99]
證據混雜
血友病
孕產婦在懷孕期間飲酒與兒童血友病有關。[100]美國國家癌症研究所發表的一篇評論,把孕期飲酒歸入「建議有可能」的類別,但所得結論是風險並不顯著。[101]
- 急性淋巴細胞性白血病 (ALL)
對於兒童的ALL而言,懷孕時期的母親飲酒「不太可能是造成ALL的重要危險因素」[101]
- 急性骨髓性白血病 (AML)
一項研究的結論是:「雖然我們的研究沒顯示酒精攝取量與血友病風險之間存在明確的關聯,但某些風險估計模式(酒精攝入量與ALL、AML、和CLL(慢性淋巴細胞性白血症)可能發生劑量和反應風險的J型曲線表現,以及酒精與CML(慢性骨髓性白血病)之間的正相關)具有建議的價值。」[102]
- 兒童急性骨髓性白血病(AML)
「有三項研究報告稱,在懷孕期間飲用酒精飲料的母親,風險會增加(約1.5-2倍)。這類關聯在3歲以下的兒童中的診斷出尤為明顯。」[101] 「孕婦在懷孕期間飲酒會增加嬰兒罹患白血病的風險,尤其是AML。」[103]
- 急性非淋巴細胞性白血病 (ANLL)
一項研究發現胎兒在子宮內接觸酒精會導致出生後發生ANLL的風險增加一倍。[104]
- 慢性淋巴細胞性白血病 (CLL)
一項研究的結論是:「雖然我們的研究沒顯示酒精攝取量與血友病風險之間存在明確的關聯,但某些風險估計模式(酒精攝取量與ALL、AML、和CLL(慢性淋巴細胞性白血症)可能發生劑量和反應風險的J型曲線表現,以及酒精與CML(慢性骨髓性白血病)之間的正相關)具有建議的價值。」[102]
- 慢性粒細胞白血病 (CML)
一項在義大利進行以人群為基礎的病例對照研究發現,飲酒與CML之間沒有顯著的正相關。[102]
- 毛細胞白血病
一項研究的結論是:「沒發現吸菸、飲酒、或是喝咖啡與毛細胞白血病之間存在關聯。」[105]
多發性骨髓瘤(MM)
酒精被認為是多發性骨髓瘤(MM)的可能原因,[106]但有項對飲酒者和非飲酒者之間的比較研究中,發現飲酒和MM之間沒有關聯。[107]
胰臟癌
雖然酒精濫用與胰臟炎之間的關聯已被證實,但飲酒與胰臟癌之間的關聯尚不清楚。總體而言,證據顯示長期大量飲酒會略微增加罹患胰臟癌的風險,但證據互相衝突,有些研究發現並無關聯。[108][109]但每天飲酒高達30克的風險並未增加。[110]
一般而言,這種關聯一直很弱,大多數研究都沒有發現有關聯。[20][110][111]雖然過度飲酒是慢性胰臟炎的主要原因,而慢性胰臟炎又易導致胰臟癌,但與飲酒相關的慢性胰臟炎與其他類型的慢性胰臟炎相比,不太常成為胰臟癌的前兆。[112]
有些研究顯示風險隨著酒精攝取量的增加而增加。[113][114][115]重度飲酒者的風險最大,[108][109][116]主要是發生在那些每天喝4標準單位或更多的人。[117]人們每天攝取多達30克酒精(大約是每天2標準單位)的風險似乎沒增加,[110][118][119]所以對大多數喝到這種數量的人而言「可能不是罹患胰臟癌的危險因素」。[109]一項匯總分析得出的結論是:「我們的研究結果是每天飲酒30克或更多的人罹患胰臟癌的風險會適度增加。」[119]
一些研究對這種發現提出警告,認為可能是由於混雜因素所造成。[108][120]即使存在連結,它「可能是由於某類酒精飲料的內容」 [121]而不是酒精本身。一項在荷蘭做的研究甚至發現,飲用白葡萄酒的人風險較低。[122]
「大約10分之7的慢性胰臟炎是由於長期大量飲酒所引起。慢性胰臟炎是胰臟癌的已知危險因素。但由酒精引起的慢性胰臟炎不會像其他類型的慢性胰臟炎那樣增加罹患胰臟癌的風險。所以如果酒精和胰臟癌風險有聯繫,那種聯繫屬於非常輕微。」[112]
「我們的研究結果顯示,以美國普通人群通常飲酒水準,可能不是導致胰臟癌的危險因素。然而我們的數據顯示,大量飲酒可能與胰臟癌風險有關聯。」[109]
「在調整年齡、吸菸狀況、和吸菸年數之後,胰臟癌的相對風險隨著飲酒量的增加而增加。」[123]
「酗酒者罹患胰臟癌的風險只增加40%……酗酒者增加罹患胰臟癌的風險相對較小,可以想像是由於吸菸造成的混淆。」[108]
「研究顯示,胰臟癌的相對風險隨著脂肪和酒精的攝取而增加,……酒精可能與胰臟癌的病因沒有直接關係:可能是由於某些酒精飲料的內含物所產生的影響。」[124]
「與不飲酒者的數據相比,以乙醇克數計算的所有類型酒精(啤酒、烈酒、紅酒、和強化酒)的累積終生攝取數量……與風險無關。白葡萄酒的消費量與風險成反比…… . 白葡萄酒精飲料終生攝取數量的統一降低風險估計是基於較小的樣本規模......「[125]
「在大多數情況下,酒精(葡萄酒、烈酒、和啤酒)的攝取量與胰臟癌無關。」[126]
「來自這兩個大型隊列研究的數據,不支持咖啡攝取量或酒精攝取量與胰臟癌風險之間有任何整體關聯。」[110]
「我們的研究結果是胰臟癌的風險會適度增加,與那些每天飲酒30克或更多的人的結果一致。」[127]
不會對某些癌症增加風險
本節列出已發表論文中未把酒精列為危險因素的癌症。
兒童星形細胞瘤
有項研究的結論是胎兒接觸酒精與兒童星形細胞瘤無關。[128]
膽管癌
對文獻的評論發現,飲酒與膽管癌之間沒有關聯。[129]
膀胱癌
「關於飲酒和膀胱癌的流行病學數據,顯示之間並無關聯,但研究結果並不完全一致。在一些調查中觀察到的膀胱癌的風險會適度增加,對此的解釋或可歸因於吸菸的殘留混淆,或是酒精、咖啡、和尚未確定的膀胱癌危險因素之間的關聯。」[130]
子宮頸癌
一項研究的結論是「酗酒的女性罹患原發生和侵襲性子宮頸癌的風險很高」,但把飲酒歸因為與生活方式相關的間接原因。[131]
乳腺導管原位癌(DCIS)
「DCIS患者和對照受試者在口服避孕藥的使用、激素替代療法、飲酒或吸菸史、或是乳房自我檢查方面的結果並無差異。在小葉原位癌(Lobular carcinoma in situ,LCIS)的關聯相似。」[132]
室管膜瘤
一篇對基礎文獻做的評論[133]發現,在一項研究[134]中,飲用啤酒與風險增加有關,但在另一項研究中則不然。[135]
眼內和葡萄膜黑色素瘤
一項研究發現酒精和葡萄膜黑色素瘤之間沒有關聯。[136]
鼻咽癌(NPC)
一項系統評價發現證據顯示少量飲酒可能會降低患鼻咽癌的風險,而大量飲酒可能會增加風險。[137]
神經母細胞瘤
一些研究顯示,在懷孕期間飲酒會增加兒童罹患神經母細胞瘤的風險。[138]
唾液腺癌(SGC)
飲酒與唾液腺癌風險增加有關聯。[139]
睪丸癌
一項評論得出的結論是「沒有確鑿的證據表明行為風險[菸草、酒精、和飲食]與睪丸癌之間存在因果關係。」 [140]
甲狀腺癌
在2009年所做的一項評論發現,飲酒不會影響到罹患甲狀腺癌的風險。[141]但同年有項針對490,000名男性和女性所做的研究,得到的結論是酒精可能會把罹患甲狀腺癌的風險降低。[142]同一年另外一項對英國1,280,296名女性所做的研究的結論是:「我們發現飲酒與降低相關的甲狀腺癌風險,與一些研究結果一致,但我們對10個病例對照研究,以及另外兩個隊列研究報告所做的綜合分析,並沒發現有統計上顯著的關聯。「[143]
陰道癌
一項在丹麥進行的研究發現,「在我們的研究中,禁酒與陰道鱗狀細胞癌和外陰鱗狀細胞癌(VV-SCCvulva)的低風險相關聯。」[144]
一項研究的結論是酗酒的女性有高風險罹患陰道癌。[131]在這兩項研究中,與生活方式相關的間接原因都受到引用。
外陰癌
一項研究報告稱「牛奶、肉類、肝臟、酒精、和咖啡的攝取量與外陰癌風險之間沒有一致的關聯。」[145]但在丹麥的一項研究發現結果相反,飲酒與陰道鱗狀細胞癌和外陰鱗狀細胞癌顯著相關。[144]在瑞典所做的一項研究的結論是酗酒的女性罹患外陰癌的風險並不高。[131]
可能可降低的風險
霍奇金淋巴瘤(HL)
有項研究的結論是:「這項大規模歐洲研究的結果……表明酒精對男性和非地中海國家的群組罹患霍奇金淋巴瘤(HL)具有保護作用。」[146]德國的一項針對人群的病例對照研究發現酒精把男性和女性罹患HL的風險降低,特別是對男性,風險降低53%。[147]
在義大利一項根據人群的病例對照研究中,提出飲酒對非吸菸者罹患HL風險有保護作用。[107]在義大利北部針對一批病例對照研究的數據分析顯示,酒精對降低吸菸者和非吸菸者的HL風險有適度的正面效果。[148]
腎臟癌(腎細胞癌)(RCC)
「在這項匯總分析中發現,適度飲酒與女性和男性罹患腎細胞癌的風險較低有關聯」[149]「這項匯總分析發現飲酒與RCC之間存在負相關。縱然每天的酒精攝入量超過8標準單位(即>100克),風險仍會繼續降低。「[150]
一項研究的結論是:「我們對中老年女性的前瞻性隊列研究結果顯示,適度飲酒可能與降低RCC風險有關聯。」[151]在美國愛荷華州進行的一項研究的人員報告說,「在這個群組中針對病例對照調查,我們發現有進一步的證據顯示飲酒會降低女性罹患RCC的風險,但不會降低男性罹患RCC的風險。我們在對幾個新的混雜因素(即飲食、運動、家族史)進行多變量調整後,關聯仍然存在,結果是更能支持真正有關聯的結果。[152]
另一項研究發現,飲酒與腎臟癌風險,無論是對男性還是女性均沒關聯。[153]
在芬蘭所做的一項研究的結論是:「這些數據顯示飲酒與男性吸菸者罹患RCC的風險降低有關聯。因為大多數風險降低是發生在那些攝取酒精的最高四分位數群組之中,而酒精是許多癌症的危險因素,尤其是針對吸菸者,應採取謹慎的態度來解釋這些數據。」[154]「我們的數據顯示,酒精攝取量與腎細胞癌風險呈負相關……」[155]對於161,126名夏威夷-洛杉磯多民族隊列參與者所做的研究,每天喝1標準單位或更多的男性與不飲酒者相比,患腎癌的風險降低31%。[156]
非霍奇金淋巴瘤 (NHL)
一項研究的結論是:「飲酒者與不飲酒者相比,前者罹患NHL的風險可能低於後者,這種風險可能因NHL的亞型而異。」[157]「飲酒者與不飲酒者相比,罹患NHL的整體風險較低。......包含NHL主要亞型。「[158]一項研究的結論是:「不飲酒者與飲酒者相比,罹患NHL的風險升高......「[159]
某些研究發現飲用某些形式的酒精飲料或某些群體的飲酒對NHL有保護作用。一項針對美國男性的研究發現,飲用葡萄酒(而非啤酒或是烈酒)與降低NHL風險有關聯 [160],有項大型歐洲研究發現,酒精對男性和非地中海國家的群組有保護作用。「[161]一項針對愛荷華州老年婦女的研究發現,酒精可降低罹患NHL的風險,同時是飲酒數量,而非酒精飲料的類型,似乎是降低風險的主要決定因素。」[162]有個解釋這種現象的機制被提出。[163]
有些研究並沒發現飲酒具有保護作用。英國的研究發現飲酒頻率與NHL之間沒有關聯 [164],瑞典的研究發現啤酒、葡萄酒、或烈酒的總攝取量與所檢查的任何NHL主要亞型無關,但大量飲酒與慢性淋巴性白血病的增加有關聯..」[165]
一項針對NHL患者的研究的結論是:「我們的研究結果強烈鼓勵醫生建議NHL患者戒菸,以及減少飲酒,以便在治療NHL過程中得到改善。」[166]
建議最大酒精飲料攝取量
如上所述,針對癌症風險,沒有單一的建議酒精攝取量,因不同的癌症而有不同。有關不同政府所公佈的指南,請參閱建議的最大酒精飲料攝取量。對於健康男性而言,每週的建議攝取數量為140–280克之間。有項綜合分析提出罹患癌症的風險從低於推薦的攝取量即已開始。「飲酒者的風險與不飲酒者相比,從每天攝取25克(<2標準單位)開始,發生癌症的相對風險為:口腔癌和咽癌(相對風險(RR)1.9),食道癌(RR 1.4)、喉癌(RR 1.4)、乳癌(RR 1.3)、肝癌(RR 1.2)、大腸癌(RR 1.1)「[167][168]
世界國際癌症研究基金會建議人們將飲酒數量限制在男性每天少於2標準單位,女性每天少於1標準單位。它將「飲料」定義為每1標準單位含有約10-15克乙醇。[169]
酒精產業操縱有關酒精與癌症相關性的訊息
在2017年發表的一項研究發現,世界領先的酒類公司所設立的掩護機構正在積極誤導公眾關於飲酒導致癌症相關風險的認知。這份研究報告把酒精產業的活動比擬為類似於菸草業的長期活動。報告聲稱業者特別著重在誤導女性飲酒者,這些公司所製造與癌症相關的錯誤信息,大部分都集中在乳癌之上。[8]
世界各地的酒類產業也發起運動,企圖把那些要求在包裝貼上癌症警告標籤的法律取消。[9]
參見
參考文獻
- ^ Global Status Report on Alcohol 2004 (PDF). Geneva: World Health Organization. 2004: 11–12 [2021-12-15]. ISBN 978-92-4-156272-0. (原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2022-03-17).
- ^ Cogliano, VJ; Baan, R; Straif, K; Grosse, Y; Lauby-Secretan, B; El Ghissassi, F; Bouvard, V; Benbrahim-Tallaa, L; Guha, N; Freeman, C; Galichet, L; Wild, CP. Preventable exposures associated with human cancers.. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 21 December 2011, 103 (24): 1827–39. PMC 3243677 . PMID 22158127. doi:10.1093/jnci/djr483.
- ^ Boffetta P, Hashibe M, La Vecchia C, Zatonski W, Rehm J. The burden of cancer attributable to alcohol drinking. International Journal of Cancer. August 2006, 119 (4): 884–7. PMID 16557583. S2CID 14938863. doi:10.1002/ijc.21903. hdl:2434/22728 .
- ^ Rumgay, Harriet; Shield, Kevin. Global burden of cancer in 2020 attributable to alcohol consumption: a population-based study. The Lancet Oncology. 13 July 2021 [27 October 2021]. doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(21)00279-5. (原始內容存檔於2022-03-27).
- ^ Platzman Weinstock, Cheryl. Alcohol Consumption Increases Risk of Breast and Other Cancers, Doctors Say. Scientific American. 8 November 2017 [13 November 2018]. (原始內容存檔於2020-11-28).
The ASCO statement, published in the Journal of Clinical Oncology, cautions that while the greatest risks are seen with heavy long-term use, even low alcohol consumption (defined as less than one drink per day) or moderate consumption (up to two drinks per day for men, and one drink per day for women because they absorb and metabolize it differently) can increase cancer risk. Among women, light drinkers have a four percent increased risk of breast cancer, while moderate drinkers have a 23 percent increased risk of the disease.
- ^ Alcohol and Cancer: A Statement of the American Society of Clinical Oncology. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 7 November 2017, 36 (1).
Clearly, the greatest cancer risks are concentrated in the heavy and moderate drinker categories. Nevertheless, some cancer risk persists even at low levels of consumption. A meta-analysis that focused solely on cancer risks associated with drinking one drink or fewer per day observed that this level of alcohol consumption was still associated with some elevated risk for squamous cell carcinoma of the esophagus (sRR, 1.30; 95% CI, 1.09 to 1.56), oropharyngeal cancer (sRR, 1.17; 95% CI, 1.06 to 1.29), and breast cancer (sRR, 1.05; 95% CI, 1.02 to 1.08), but no discernable associations were seen for cancers of the colorectum, larynx, and liver.
- ^ Cancer warning labels to be included on alcohol in Ireland, minister confirms. The Belfast Telegraph. 26 September 2018 [2021-12-15]. (原始內容存檔於2020-04-11).
- ^ 8.0 8.1 Petticrew M, Maani Hessari N, Knai C, Weiderpass E, et al. How alcohol industry organisations mislead the public about alcohol and cancer. Drug and Alcohol Review [Epub ahead of print]. 2018, 37 (3): 293–303 [2021-12-15]. PMID 28881410. S2CID 892691. doi:10.1111/dar.12596. (原始內容存檔於2021-04-21).
- ^ 9.0 9.1 Chaudhuri, Saabira. Lawmakers, Alcohol Industry Tussle Over Cancer Labels on Booze. The Wall Street Journal. 9 February 2018 [2021-12-15]. (原始內容存檔於2021-01-21).
- ^ Study bolsters alcohol-cancer link (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館) ABC News 24 August 2009
- ^ Drinking over recommended limit 'raises cancer risk' (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館). BBC. 8 April 2011
- ^ Schutze, M.; Boeing, H.; Pischon, T.; Rehm, J.; Kehoe, T.; Gmel, G.; Olsen, A.; Tjonneland, A. M.; Dahm, C. C.; Overvad, K.; Clavel-Chapelon, F.; Boutron-Ruault, M.-C.; Trichopoulou, A.; Benetou, V.; Zylis, D.; Kaaks, R.; Rohrmann, S.; Palli, D.; Berrino, F.; Tumino, R.; Vineis, P.; Rodriguez, L.; Agudo, A.; Sanchez, M.-J.; Dorronsoro, M.; Chirlaque, M.-D.; Barricarte, A.; Peeters, P. H.; Van Gils, C. H.; et al. Alcohol attributable burden of incidence of cancer in eight European countries based on results from prospective cohort study. BMJ. 2011, 342: d1584. PMC 3072472 . PMID 21474525. doi:10.1136/bmj.d1584.
- ^ Alcohol drinking. Lyon: World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer. 1988. ISBN 978-92-832-1244-7. p8
- ^ 14.0 14.1 Homann N, Stickel F, König IR, et al. Alcohol dehydrogenase 1C*1 allele is a genetic marker for alcohol-associated cancer in heavy drinkers. International Journal of Cancer. April 2006, 118 (8): 1998–2002. PMID 16287084. S2CID 11716548. doi:10.1002/ijc.21583.
- ^ 2.What is the evidence that alcohol drinking is a cause of cancer? (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館) cancer.gov
- ^ Pöschl G, Seitz HK. Alcohol and cancer. Alcohol and Alcoholism. 2004, 39 (3): 155–65. PMID 15082451. doi:10.1093/alcalc/agh057 .
- ^ Theruvathu JA, Jaruga P, Nath RG, Dizdaroglu M, Brooks PJ. Polyamines stimulate the formation of mutagenic 1,N2-propanodeoxyguanosine adducts from acetaldehyde. Nucleic Acids Research. 2005, 33 (11): 3513–20. PMC 1156964 . PMID 15972793. doi:10.1093/nar/gki661.
- ^ Purohit V, Khalsa J, Serrano J. Mechanisms of alcohol-associated cancers: introduction and summary of the symposium. Alcohol. April 2005, 35 (3): 155–60 [2021-12-15]. PMID 16054976. doi:10.1016/j.alcohol.2005.05.001. (原始內容存檔於2021-12-11).
- ^ Boffetta P, Hashibe M. Alcohol and cancer. The Lancet Oncology. February 2006, 7 (2): 149–156 [2021-12-15]. PMID 16455479. doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(06)70577-0. (原始內容存檔於2013-05-23).
- ^ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Alcohol and Cancer. Alcohol Alert. 1993, 21 [2021-12-15]. (原始內容存檔於2005-12-23).
- ^ Blot WJ, McLaughlin JK, Winn DM, et al. Smoking and drinking in relation to oral and pharyngeal cancer. Cancer Research. 1 June 1988, 48 (11): 3282–7 [2021-12-15]. PMID 3365707. (原始內容存檔於2012-07-07).
- ^ Lopez-Lazaro M. A local mechanism by which alcohol consumption causes cancer. (PDF). Oral Oncology. October 2016, 62: 149–152 [2021-12-15]. PMID 27720397. doi:10.1016/j.oraloncology.2016.10.001. hdl:11441/52478. (原始內容存檔 (PDF)於2022-09-29).
- ^ Rush University Medical Center Alcohol Activates Cellular Changes That Make Tumor Cells Spread (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館) 26 October 2009
- ^ Forsyth CB, Tang Y, Shaikh M, Zhang L, Keshavarzian A. Alcohol stimulates activation of Snail, epidermal growth factor receptor signaling, and biomarkers of epithelial-mesenchymal transition in colon and breast cancer cells. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. January 2010, 34 (1): 19–31. PMC 3689303 . PMID 19860811. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.01061.x.
- ^ Matsuhashi T, Yamada N, Shinzawa H, Takahashi T. Effect of alcohol on tumor growth of hepatocellular carcinoma with type C cirrhosis. Internal Medicine. June 1996, 35 (6): 443–8. PMID 8835593. doi:10.2169/internalmedicine.35.443 .
In conclusion we found that alcohol intake was closely related to the tumor growth of HCC in patients with type C cirrhosis.
- ^ Gu JW, Bailey AP, Sartin A, Makey I, Brady AL. Ethanol stimulates tumor progression and expression of vascular endothelial growth factor in chick embryos. Cancer. January 2005, 103 (2): 422–31. PMID 15597382. S2CID 17578583. doi:10.1002/cncr.20781.
- ^ Equivalent of 2–4 Drinks Daily Fuels Blood Vessel Growth, Encourages Cancer Tumors in Mice (新聞稿). American Physiological Society. 3 April 2006 [26 June 2009]. (原始內容存檔於29 June 2006).
- ^ Tan W, Bailey AP, Shparago M, et al. Chronic alcohol consumption stimulates VEGF expression, tumor angiogenesis and progression of melanoma in mice. Cancer Biology & Therapy. August 2007, 6 (8): 1211–7 [2021-12-15]. PMID 17660711. doi:10.4161/cbt.6.8.4383 . (原始內容存檔於2020-04-24).
- ^ Núñez NP, Carter PA, Meadows GG. Alcohol consumption promotes body weight loss in melanoma-bearing mice. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. May 2002, 26 (5): 617–26. PMID 12045469. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2002.tb02583.x.
- ^ Clues to alcohol cancer mystery. BBC News. 25 May 2008 [29 June 2009]. (原始內容存檔於2009-02-12).
- ^ Oculocutaneous tyrosinemia/tyrosine aminotransferase deficiency, Atlas of Inherited Metabolic Diseases 3E, CRC Press: 164–170, 2011-12-30, ISBN 978-1-4441-1225-2, doi:10.1201/b15310-23
- ^ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 Allen NE, Beral V, Casabonne D, et al. Moderate alcohol intake and cancer incidence in women. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. March 2009, 101 (5): 296–305. PMID 19244173. doi:10.1093/jnci/djn514 .
- ^ Alcohol Consumption. Cancer Trends Progress Report – 2007 Update. National Cancer Institute. December 2007 [29 June 2009]. (原始內容存檔於2019-05-01).
- ^ Research Projects: Pooled analysis investigating the effects of beer, wine and liquor consumption on the risk of head and neck cancers. The International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology Consortium. [29 June 2009]. (原始內容存檔於11 December 2008).
- ^ Garavello W, Bosetti C, Gallus S, et al. Type of alcoholic beverage and the risk of laryngeal cancer. European Journal of Cancer Prevention. February 2006, 15 (1): 69–73. PMID 16374233. S2CID 29247309. doi:10.1097/01.cej.0000186641.19872.04.
- ^ Alcohol and cancer: is drinking the new smoking? (新聞稿). Centre for Addiction and Mental Health. 26 September 2007 [29 June 2009]. (原始內容存檔於7 September 2008).
- ^ Alcohol And Cancer: Is Drinking The New Smoking? (新聞稿). Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Science Daily. 28 September 2007 [29 June 2009]. (原始內容存檔於2021-12-11).
- ^ Warnakulasuriya S, Parkkila S, Nagao T, et al. Demonstration of ethanol-induced protein adducts in oral leukoplakia (pre-cancer) and cancer. Journal of Oral Pathology & Medicine. 2007, 37 (3): 157–165. PMID 18251940. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0714.2007.00605.x.
- ^ Alcohol and oral cancer research breakthrough 網際網路檔案館的存檔,存檔日期2 May 2009.
- ^ What Are the Risk Factors for Breast Cancer?. American Cancer Society. 31 May 2009 [29 June 2009]. (原始內容存檔於29 April 2009).
- ^ What You Need To Know About Breast Cancer. National Cancer Institute. [2021-12-15]. (原始內容存檔於2014-10-05).
- ^ Definite breast cancer risks. CancerHelp UK. Cancer Research UK. 2017-08-30 [2021-12-15]. (原始內容存檔於2009-02-11).
- ^ 43.0 43.1 Non-Technical Summary 網際網路檔案館的存檔,存檔日期24 July 2006.. UK Committee on Carcinogenicity of Chemicals in Food Consumer Products and the Environment (COC)
- ^ American Association for Cancer Research Alcohol Consumption Increases Risk of Breast Cancer Recurrence 10 December 2009 網際網路檔案館的存檔,存檔日期1 March 2010.
- ^ Alcohol link to breast cancer recurrence (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館). BBC. 11 December 2009
- ^ Zisman AL, Nickolov A, Brand RE, Gorchow A, Roy HK. Associations between the age at diagnosis and location of colorectal cancer and the use of alcohol and tobacco: implications for screening. Archives of Internal Medicine. March 2006, 166 (6): 629–34. PMID 16567601. doi:10.1001/archinte.166.6.629 .
- ^ Types of cancer. World Cancer Research Fund. [29 June 2009]. (原始內容存檔於9 June 2009).
- ^ Colorectal Cancer – Step 1: Find Out About Colorectal Cancer Risk. National Cancer Institute. [29 June 2009]. (原始內容存檔於22 April 2009).
- ^ Colorectal Cancer Prevention. National Cancer Institute. 7 May 2009 [29 June 2009]. (原始內容存檔於2015-04-21).
- ^ Food types and bowel cancer. Cancer Research. 19 September 2008 [29 June 2009]. (原始內容存檔於2009-03-11).
- ^ What Are the Risk Factors for Colorectal Cancer?. American Cancer Society. 18 May 2009 [26 June 2009]. (原始內容存檔於19 April 2008).
- ^ Colon Cancer: Risk factors. Mayo Clinic. 2 May 2008 [29 June 2009]. (原始內容存檔於2013-10-01).
- ^ alcohol. 3 November 2015 [2021-12-15]. (原始內容存檔於2016-03-05).
- ^ Sloan-Kettering – Colorectal Cancer: Risk Reduction
- ^ World Cancer Research Fund; American Institute for Cancer Research. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective (PDF). Washington, D.C.: American Institute for Cancer Research. 2007 [29 June 2009]. ISBN 978-0-9722522-2-5. (原始內容 (PDF)存檔於25 March 2009).[頁碼請求]
- ^ National Cancer Institute (NCI) Cancer Trends Progress Report Alcohol Consumption 網際網路檔案館的存檔,存檔日期16 December 2012.
- ^ Fedirko, V.; Tramacere, I.; Bagnardi, V.; Rota, M.; Scotti, L.; Islami, F.; Negri, E.; Straif, K.; Romieu, I.; La Vecchia, C.; Boffetta, P.; Jenab, M. Alcohol drinking and colorectal cancer risk: an overall and dose-response meta-analysis of published studies. Annals of Oncology. 9 February 2011, 22 (9): 1958–1972. PMID 21307158. doi:10.1093/annonc/mdq653 .
- ^ Alcohol and Cancer Risk (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館). cancer.gov
- ^ Liver Cancer Risk Factors (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館). cancer.org
- ^ Risk Factors. umgcc.or 網際網路檔案館的存檔,存檔日期23 February 2009.
- ^ Liver Cancer: The Basics (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館). oncolink.org
- ^ Liver Cancer. utmedicalcenter.org 網際網路檔案館的存檔,存檔日期28 July 2011.
- ^ Takada, Akira; Shujiro Takase; Mikihiro Tsutsumi. Alcohol and Hepatic Carcinogenesis. Raz Yirmiya; Anna N. Taylor (編). Alcohol, Immunity, and Cancer. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. 1992: 187–209. ISBN 978-0-8493-5761-9.
- ^ Villa, Erica; Margherita Melegari; Federico Manenti. Alcohol, Viral Hepatitis, and Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Ronald Ross Watson (編). Alcohol and cancer. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. 1992: 151–165 [2021-12-15]. ISBN 978-0-8493-7938-3. (原始內容存檔於2021-12-26).
- ^ Duffy, S.W., and Sharples, L.D. Alcohol and cancer risk. In: Duffy, J.L., ed. Alcohol and Illness: The Epidemiological Viewpoint. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1992. pp. 64–127.'
- ^ Franceschi S, Montella M, Polesel J, et al. Hepatitis viruses, alcohol, and tobacco in the etiology of hepatocellular carcinoma in Italy. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. April 2006, 15 (4): 683–9. PMID 16614109. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-05-0702 .
- ^ Donato F, Tagger A, Chiesa R, et al. Hepatitis B and C virus infection, alcohol drinking, and hepatocellular carcinoma: a case-control study in Italy. Brescia HCC Study. Hepatology. September 1997, 26 (3): 579–84. PMID 9303486. S2CID 73143125. doi:10.1002/hep.510260308 .
- ^ Freudenheim JL, Ritz J, Smith-Warner SA, et al. Alcohol consumption and risk of lung cancer: a pooled analysis of cohort studies. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1 September 2005, 82 (3): 657–67. PMID 16155281. doi:10.1093/ajcn.82.3.657 .
- ^ Boston University Alcohol Consumption and Lung Cancer: Are They Connected? 網際網路檔案館的存檔,存檔日期20 September 2006.
- ^ Alcohol Consumption and Lung Cancer: Are They Connected?. Boston University. [28 October 2021]. (原始內容存檔於2021-12-11).
- ^ Millen AE, Tucker MA, Hartge P, et al. Diet and melanoma in a case-control study. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 1 June 2004, 13 (6): 1042–51 [2021-12-15]. PMID 15184262. (原始內容存檔於2012-07-07).
- ^ 72.0 72.1 Bagnardi V, Blangiardo M, La Vecchia C, Corrao G. Alcohol consumption and the risk of cancer: a meta-analysis. Alcohol Research & Health. 2001, 25 (4): 263–70 [2021-12-15]. PMC 6705703 . PMID 11910703. (原始內容存檔於2019-06-20).
- ^ 73.0 73.1 Chen MJ, Chiou YY, Wu DC, Wu SL. Lifestyle habits and gastric cancer in a hospital-based case-control study in Taiwan. The American Journal of Gastroenterology. November 2000, 95 (11): 3242–9. PMID 11095349.
- ^ Inoue M, Tajima K, Hirose K, Kuroishi T, Gao CM, Kitoh T. Life-style and subsite of gastric cancer—joint effect of smoking and drinking habits. International Journal of Cancer. February 1994, 56 (4): 494–9. PMID 8112885. S2CID 21402545. doi:10.1002/ijc.2910560407.
- ^ 75.0 75.1 Sjödahl K, Lu Y, Nilsen TI, et al. Smoking and alcohol drinking in relation to risk of gastric cancer: a population-based, prospective cohort study. International Journal of Cancer. January 2007, 120 (1): 128–32. PMID 17036324. S2CID 26972976. doi:10.1002/ijc.22157 .
- ^ Tinelli A, Vergara D, Martignago R, et al. Hormonal carcinogenesis and socio-biological development factors in endometrial cancer: a clinical review. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2008, 87 (11): 1101–13. PMID 18607816. S2CID 1910334. doi:10.1080/00016340802160079.
- ^ UK Department of Health Review of Alcohol: Association with Endometrial Cancer p8
- ^ Newcomb PA, Trentham-Dietz A, Storer BE. Alcohol consumption in relation to endometrial cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 1997, 6 (10): 775–778 [2021-12-15]. PMID 9332758. (原始內容存檔於2008-10-16).
- ^ Setiawan VW, Monroe KR, Goodman MT, Kolonel LN, Pike MC, Henderson BE. Alcohol consumption and endometrial cancer risk: The Multiethnic Cohort. International Journal of Cancer. February 2008, 122 (3): 634–8. PMC 2667794 . PMID 17764072. doi:10.1002/ijc.23072.
- ^ Friberg E, Wolk A. Long-term alcohol consumption and risk of endometrial cancer incidence: a prospective cohort study. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. Jan 2009, 18 (1): 355–8 [2021-12-15]. PMID 19124521. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-08-0993 . (原始內容存檔於2016-01-13).
- ^ Moerman CJ, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB. The epidemiology of gallbladder cancer: lifestyle related risk factors and limited surgical possibilities for prevention. Hepatogastroenterology. 1999, 46 (27): 1533–9. PMID 10430290.
- ^ Ji J, Couto E, Hemminki K. Incidence differences for gallbladder cancer between occupational groups suggest an etiological role for alcohol. International Journal of Cancer. September 2005, 116 (3): 492–3. PMID 15800949. S2CID 32298422. doi:10.1002/ijc.21055 .
- ^ Pandey M, Shukla VK. Lifestyle, parity, menstrual and reproductive factors and risk of gallbladder cancer. European Journal of Cancer Prevention. August 2003, 12 (4): 269–72. PMID 12883378. S2CID 32148865. doi:10.1097/00008469-200308000-00005.
- ^ Yagyu K, Kikuchi S, Obata Y, et al. Cigarette smoking, alcohol drinking and the risk of gallbladder cancer death: a prospective cohort study in Japan. International Journal of Cancer. February 2008, 122 (4): 924–9. PMID 17955487. S2CID 29223553. doi:10.1002/ijc.23159.
- ^ La Vecchia C, Negri E, Franceschi S, Parazzini F, Gentile A, Fasoli M. Alcohol and epithelial ovarian cancer. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology. September 1992, 45 (9): 1025–30. PMID 1432017. doi:10.1016/0895-4356(92)90119-8.
- ^ 86.0 86.1 Alcohol consumption and cancer risk Archive.is的存檔,存檔日期23 December 2012
- ^ Genkinger JM, Hunter DJ, Spiegelman D, et al. Alcohol intake and ovarian cancer risk: a pooled analysis of 10 cohort studies. British Journal of Cancer. March 2006, 94 (5): 757–62. PMC 2361197 . PMID 16495916. doi:10.1038/sj.bjc.6603020.
- ^ Yip, Ian; Heber, David; Aronson, William. Nutrition and Prostate Cancer (PDF). Urologic Clinics of North America. 1999, 26 (2): 403–411. PMID 10361562. doi:10.1016/S0094-0143(05)70079-3. (原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2009-04-27).
- ^ Bagnardi V, Blangiardo M, La Vecchia C, Corrao G. A meta-analysis of alcohol drinking and cancer risk. British Journal of Cancer. November 2001, 85 (11): 1700–5. PMC 2363992 . PMID 11742491. doi:10.1054/bjoc.2001.2140.
- ^ Platz EA, Leitzmann MF, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Giovannucci E. Alcohol intake, drinking patterns, and risk of prostate cancer in a large prospective cohort study. American Journal of Epidemiology. March 2004, 159 (5): 444–53. PMID 14977640. doi:10.1093/aje/kwh062 .
- ^ 91.0 91.1 Sesso HD, Paffenbarger RS, Lee IM. Alcohol consumption and risk of prostate cancer: The Harvard Alumni Health Study. International Journal of Epidemiology. August 2001, 30 (4): 749–55. PMID 11511598. doi:10.1093/ije/30.4.749 .
- ^ 92.0 92.1 Schoonen WM, Salinas CA, Kiemeney LA, Stanford JL. Alcohol consumption and risk of prostate cancer in middle-aged men. International Journal of Cancer. January 2005, 113 (1): 133–40. PMID 15386436. S2CID 19513583. doi:10.1002/ijc.20528 .
- ^ Cancer Research UK Prostate Cancer risk factors Archive.is的存檔,存檔日期2012-07-13
- ^ Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center press release A Glass of Red Wine a Day May Keep Prostate Cancer Away (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- ^ Middleton Fillmore K, Chikritzhs T, Stockwell T, Bostrom A, Pascal R. Alcohol use and prostate cancer: a meta-analysis. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research. February 2009, 53 (2): 240–55. PMID 19156715. S2CID 28921992. doi:10.1002/mnfr.200800122.
- ^ Study links alcohol, prostate cancer. ABC News. 14 March 2009 [29 June 2009]. (原始內容存檔於20 June 2009).
- ^ Chen CC, Neugut AI, Rotterdam H. Risk factors for adenocarcinomas and malignant carcinoids of the small intestine: preliminary findings. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 1 April 1994, 3 (3): 205–7 [2021-12-15]. PMID 8019367. (原始內容存檔於2012-07-12).
- ^ Wu AH, Yu MC, Mack TM. Smoking, alcohol use, dietary factors and risk of small intestinal adenocarcinoma. International Journal of Cancer. March 1997, 70 (5): 512–7. PMID 9052748. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0215(19970304)70:5<512::AID-IJC4>3.0.CO;2-0 .
- ^ Negri E, Bosetti C, La Vecchia C, Fioretti F, Conti E, Franceschi S. Risk factors for adenocarcinoma of the small intestine. International Journal of Cancer. July 1999, 82 (2): 171–4. PMID 10389747. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0215(19990719)82:2<171::AID-IJC3>3.0.CO;2-T.
- ^ Infante-Rivard C, El-Zein M. Parental alcohol consumption and childhood cancers: a review. J Toxicol Environ Health B. 2007, 10 (1–2): 101–29. PMID 18074306. S2CID 22394372. doi:10.1080/10937400601034597.
- ^ 101.0 101.1 101.2 Malcolm A. Smith, Lynn A. Gloeckler Ries, James G. Gurney, Julie A. Ross [1] (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館) National Cancer Institute 34 SEER Pediatric Monograph
- ^ 102.0 102.1 102.2 Gorini G, Stagnaro E, Fontana V, et al. Alcohol consumption and risk of leukemia: A multicenter case-control study. Leukemia Research. March 2007, 31 (3): 379–86. PMID 16919329. doi:10.1016/j.leukres.2006.07.002.
- ^ Shu XO, Ross JA, Pendergrass TW, Reaman GH, Lampkin B, Robison LL. Parental alcohol consumption, cigarette smoking, and risk of infant leukemia: a Childrens Cancer Group study. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. January 1996, 88 (1): 24–31. PMID 8847721. doi:10.1093/jnci/88.1.24 .
- ^ van Duijn CM, van Steensel-Moll HA, Coebergh JW, van Zanen GE. Risk factors for childhood acute non-lymphocytic leukemia: an association with maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy?. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 1 September 1994, 3 (6): 457–60 [2021-12-15]. PMID 8000294. (原始內容存檔於2013-02-23).
- ^ Oleske D, Golomb HM, Farber MD, Levy PS. A case-control inquiry into the etiology of hairy cell leukemia. American Journal of Epidemiology. May 1985, 121 (5): 675–83 [2021-12-15]. PMID 4014159. doi:10.1093/aje/121.5.675. (原始內容存檔於2016-01-13).
- ^ Kyle RA, Rajkumar SV. Epidemiology of the plasma-cell disorders. Best Pract Res Clin Haematol. December 2007, 20 (4): 637–64. PMID 18070711. doi:10.1016/j.beha.2007.08.001.
- ^ 107.0 107.1 Gorini G, Stagnaro E, Fontana V, et al. Alcohol consumption and risk of Hodgkin's lymphoma and multiple myeloma: a multicentre case-control study. Annals of Oncology. January 2007, 18 (1): 143–8. PMID 17047000. doi:10.1093/annonc/mdl352 .
- ^ 108.0 108.1 108.2 108.3 Ye W, Lagergren J, Weiderpass E, Nyrén O, Adami HO, Ekbom A. Alcohol abuse and the risk of pancreatic cancer. Gut. August 2002, 51 (2): 236–9. PMC 1773298 . PMID 12117886. doi:10.1136/gut.51.2.236.
- ^ 109.0 109.1 109.2 109.3 Silverman DT, Brown LM, Hoover RN, et al. Alcohol and pancreatic cancer in blacks and whites in the United States. Cancer Research. 1 November 1995, 55 (21): 4899–905. PMID 7585527.
- ^ 110.0 110.1 110.2 110.3 Michaud DS, Giovannucci E, Willett WC, Colditz GA, Fuchs CS. Coffee and alcohol consumption and the risk of pancreatic cancer in two prospective United States cohorts. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 2001, 10 (5): 429–37. PMID 11352851.
- ^ Villeneuve PJ, Johnson KC, Hanley AJ, Mao Y. Alcohol, tobacco and coffee consumption and the risk of pancreatic cancer: results from the Canadian Enhanced Surveillance System case-control project. Canadian Cancer Registries Epidemiology Research Group. European Journal of Cancer Prevention. February 2000, 9 (1): 49–58. PMID 10777010. doi:10.1097/00008469-200002000-00007.
- ^ 112.0 112.1 Pancreatic cancer risks and causes (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館). Cancer Research UK
- ^ Ahlgren JD. Epidemiology and risk factors in pancreatic cancer. Seminars in Oncology. April 1996, 23 (2): 241–50. PMID 8623060.
- ^ Cuzick J, Babiker AG. Pancreatic cancer, alcohol, diabetes mellitus and gall-bladder disease. International Journal of Cancer. March 1989, 43 (3): 415–21. PMID 2925272. S2CID 35777641. doi:10.1002/ijc.2910430312.
- ^ Harnack LJ, Anderson KE, Zheng W, Folsom AR, Sellers TA, Kushi LH. Smoking, alcohol, coffee, and tea intake and incidence of cancer of the exocrine pancreas: the Iowa Women's Health Study. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. December 1997, 6 (12): 1081–6. PMID 9419407.
- ^ Schottenfeld, D. and J. Fraumeni, ed. (1996) Cancer epidemiology and prevention. 2nd ed., Oxford University Press: Oxford[頁碼請求]
- ^ Olsen GW, Mandel JS, Gibson RW, Wattenberg LW, Schuman LM. A case-control study of pancreatic cancer and cigarettes, alcohol, coffee and diet. American Journal of Public Health. August 1989, 79 (8): 1016–9. PMC 1349898 . PMID 2751016. doi:10.2105/AJPH.79.8.1016.
- ^ Pancreatic cancer risk factors. Info.cancerresearchuk.org. 2008-11-04 [2009-09-15]. (原始內容存檔於2012-07-12).
- ^ 119.0 119.1 Genkinger JM, Spiegelman D, Anderson KE, Bergkvist L, Bernstein L, van den Brandt PA, English DR, Freudenheim JL, Fuchs CS, Giles GG, Giovannucci E, Hankinson SE, Horn-Ross PL, Leitzmann M, Männistö S, Marshall JR, McCullough ML, Miller AB, Reding DJ, Robien K, Rohan TE, Schatzkin A, Stevens VL, Stolzenberg-Solomon RZ, Verhage BA, Wolk A, Ziegler RG, Smith-Warner SA. Alcohol intake and pancreatic cancer risk: a pooled analysis of fourteen cohort studies. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. March 2009, 18 (3): 765–76. PMC 2715951 . PMID 19258474. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-08-0880.
In summary, a weak positive association between alcohol intake during adulthood and pancreatic cancer risk was observed in the highest category of intake (≥30g/day or approximately 2 alcoholic beverages/day). Associations with alcohol intake were stronger among individuals who were normal weight. Thus, our findings are consistent with a modest increase in risk of pancreatic cancer for alcohol intakes of at least 30 grams/day.
- ^ Zatonski WA, Boyle P, Przewozniak K, Maisonneuve P, Drosik K, Walker AM. Cigarette smoking, alcohol, tea and coffee consumption and pancreas cancer risk: a case-control study from Opole, Poland. International Journal of Cancer. February 1993, 53 (4): 601–7. PMID 8436433. S2CID 39084516. doi:10.1002/ijc.2910530413.
- ^ Durbec JP, Chevillotte G, Bidart JM, Berthezene P, Sarles H. Diet, alcohol, tobacco and risk of cancer of the pancreas: a case-control study. British Journal of Cancer. April 1983, 47 (4): 463–70. PMC 2011343 . PMID 6849792. doi:10.1038/bjc.1983.75.
- ^ Bueno de Mesquita HB, Maisonneuve P, Moerman CJ, Runia S, Boyle P. Lifetime consumption of alcoholic beverages, tea and coffee and exocrine carcinoma of the pancreas: a population-based case-control study in The Netherlands. International Journal of Cancer. February 1992, 50 (4): 514–22. PMID 1537615. S2CID 23170705. doi:10.1002/ijc.2910500403.
- ^ Harnack LJ, Anderson KE, Zheng W, Folsom AR, Sellers TA, Kushi LH. Smoking, alcohol, coffee, and tea intake and incidence of cancer of the exocrine pancreas: the Iowa Women's Health Study. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 1997, 6 (12): 1081–6. PMID 9419407.
- ^ Durbec JP, Chevillotte G, Bidart JM, Berthezene P, Sarles H. Diet, alcohol, tobacco and risk of cancer of the pancreas: a case-control study. British Journal of Cancer. April 1983, 47 (4): 463–70. PMC 2011343 . PMID 6849792. doi:10.1038/bjc.1983.75.
- ^ Bueno de Mesquita HB, Maisonneuve P, Moerman CJ, Runia S, Boyle P. Lifetime consumption of alcoholic beverages, tea and coffee and exocrine carcinoma of the pancreas: a population-based case-control study in The Netherlands. International Journal of Cancer. February 1992, 50 (4): 514–22. PMID 1537615. S2CID 23170705. doi:10.1002/ijc.2910500403.
- ^ Villeneuve PJ, Johnson KC, Hanley AJ, Mao Y. Alcohol, tobacco and coffee consumption and the risk of pancreatic cancer: results from the Canadian Enhanced Surveillance System case-control project. Canadian Cancer Registries Epidemiology Research Group. European Journal of Cancer Prevention. February 2000, 9 (1): 49–58. PMID 10777010. doi:10.1097/00008469-200002000-00007.
- ^ Genkinger JM, Spiegelman D, Anderson KE, et al. Alcohol Intake and Pancreatic Cancer Risk: A Pooled Analysis of Fourteen Cohort Studies. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. March 2009, 18 (3): 765–76. PMC 2715951 . PMID 19258474. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-08-0880.
- ^ Kuijten RR, Bunin GR, Nass CC, Meadows AT. Gestational and familial risk factors for childhood astrocytoma: results of a case-control study (PDF). Cancer Research. 1 May 1990, 50 (9): 2608–12 [2021-12-15]. PMID 2328486. (原始內容存檔 (PDF)於2022-09-29).
- ^ Ben-Menachem T. Risk factors for cholangiocarcinoma. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. August 2007, 19 (8): 615–7. PMID 17625428. S2CID 25306939. doi:10.1097/MEG.0b013e328224b935.
- ^ Pelucchi C, La Vecchia C. Alcohol, coffee, and bladder cancer risk: a review of epidemiological studies. Eur. J. Cancer Prev. February 2009, 18 (1): 62–8. PMID 19077567. doi:10.1097/CEJ.0b013e32830c8d44.
- ^ 131.0 131.1 131.2 Weiderpass E, Ye W, Tamimi R, et al. Alcoholism and risk for cancer of the cervix uteri, vagina, and vulva. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 1 August 2001, 10 (8): 899–901. PMID 11489758.
- ^ Claus EB, Stowe M, Carter D. Breast carcinoma in situ: risk factors and screening patterns. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. December 2001, 93 (23): 1811–7. PMID 11734598. S2CID 13818666. doi:10.1093/jnci/93.23.1811.
- ^ Kuijten RR, Bunin GR. Risk factors for childhood brain tumors. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 1 May 1993, 2 (3): 277–88. PMID 8318881.
- ^ Howe GR, Burch JD, Chiarelli AM, Risch HA, Choi BC. An exploratory case-control study of brain tumors in children. Cancer Research. 1989, 49 (15): 4349–52. PMID 2743324.
- ^ Preston-Martin S, Yu MC, Benton B, Henderson BE. N-Nitroso compounds and childhood brain tumors: a case-control study. Cancer Research. 1982, 42 (12): 5240–5. PMID 7139628.
- ^ Stang A, Ahrens W, Anastassiou G, Jöckel KH. Phenotypical characteristics, lifestyle, social class and uveal melanoma. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. December 2003, 10 (5): 293–302. PMID 14566630. S2CID 1592701. doi:10.1076/opep.10.5.293.17319.
- ^ Chen L, Gallicchio L, Boyd-Lindsley K, et al. Alcohol Consumption and the Risk of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma: A Systematic Review. Nutr Cancer. 2009, 61 (1): 1–15. PMC 3072894 . PMID 19116871. doi:10.1080/01635580802372633.
- ^ Heck JE, Ritz B, Hung RJ, Hashibe M, Boffetta P. The epidemiology of neuroblastoma: a review. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. March 2009, 23 (2): 125–43. PMID 19159399. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3016.2008.00983.x.
- ^ Actis AB, Eynard AR. Influence of environmental and nutritional factors on salivary gland tumorigenesis with a special reference to dietary lipids. Eur J Clin Nutr. November 2000, 54 (11): 805–10. PMID 11114673. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601077 .
- ^ van Hemelrijck; Mieke J.J. Tobacco, Alcohol and Dietary Consumption: Behavior Risks Associated with Testicular Cancer?. Current Urology. 2007, 1 (2): 57–63. S2CID 71608840. doi:10.1159/000106534.
- ^ Dal Maso L, Bosetti C, La Vecchia C, Franceschi S. Risk factors for thyroid cancer: an epidemiological review focused on nutritional factors. Cancer Causes Control. February 2009, 20 (1): 75–86. PMID 18766448. S2CID 25427265. doi:10.1007/s10552-008-9219-5.
- ^ Meinhold, C L; Park, Y; Stolzenberg-Solomon, R Z; Hollenbeck, A R; Schatzkin, A; Berrington De Gonzalez, A. Alcohol intake and risk of thyroid cancer in the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study. British Journal of Cancer. 2009, 101 (9): 1630–4. PMC 2778506 . PMID 19862001. doi:10.1038/sj.bjc.6605337.
- ^ Allen, Naomi E.; Beral, Valerie; Casabonne, Delphine; Sau, Kan Wan; Reeves, Gillian K.; Brown, Anna; Green, Jane. Moderate Alcohol Intake and Cancer Incidence in Women. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 2009, 101 (5): 296–305 [2021-12-15]. PMID 19244173. doi:10.1093/jnci/djn514 . (原始內容存檔於2010-09-06).
- ^ 144.0 144.1 Madsen BS, Jensen HL, van den Brule AJ, Wohlfahrt J, Frisch M. Risk factors for invasive squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva and vagina—population-based case-control study in Denmark. International Journal of Cancer. June 2008, 122 (12): 2827–34. PMID 18348142. S2CID 11542729. doi:10.1002/ijc.23446 .
- ^ Parazzini F, Moroni S, Negri E, La Vecchia C, Dal Pino D, Cavalleri E. Selected food intake and risk of vulvar cancer. Cancer. December 1995, 76 (11): 2291–6. PMID 8635034. doi:10.1002/1097-0142(19951201)76:11<2291::AID-CNCR2820761117>3.0.CO;2-W.
- ^ Besson H, Brennan P, Becker N, et al. Tobacco smoking, alcohol drinking and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: A European multicenter case-control study (Epilymph). International Journal of Cancer. August 2006, 119 (4): 901–8. PMID 16557575. S2CID 41632578. doi:10.1002/ijc.21913.
- ^ Nieters A, Deeg E, Becker N. Tobacco and alcohol consumption and risk of lymphoma: results of a population-based case-control study in Germany. International Journal of Cancer. January 2006, 118 (2): 422–30. PMID 16080191. S2CID 9532867. doi:10.1002/ijc.21306 .
- ^ Deandrea S, Bertuccio P, Chatenoud L, Franceschi S, Serraino D, La Vecchia C. Reply to 'Alcohol consumption and risk of Hodgkin's lymphoma and multiple myeloma: a multicentre case-control study' by Gorini et al. Annals of Oncology. June 2007, 18 (6): 1119–21. PMID 17586754. doi:10.1093/annonc/mdm203 .
- ^ Lee JE, Hunter DJ, Spiegelman D, et al. Alcohol intake and renal cell cancer in a pooled analysis of 12 prospective studies. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. May 2007, 99 (10): 801–10. PMID 17505075. doi:10.1093/jnci/djk181 .
- ^ Pelucchi C, Galeone C, Montella M, et al. Alcohol consumption and renal cell cancer risk in two Italian case-control studies. Annals of Oncology. May 2008, 19 (5): 1003–8. PMID 18187482. doi:10.1093/annonc/mdm590 .
- ^ Rashidkhani B, Akesson A, Lindblad P, Wolk A. Alcohol consumption and risk of renal cell carcinoma: a prospective study of Swedish women. International Journal of Cancer. December 2005, 117 (5): 848–53. PMID 15957170. S2CID 38418551. doi:10.1002/ijc.21231.
- ^ Parker AS, Cerhan JR, Lynch CF, Ershow AG, Cantor KP. Gender, alcohol consumption, and renal cell carcinoma. American Journal of Epidemiology. March 2002, 155 (5): 455–62. PMID 11867357. doi:10.1093/aje/155.5.455 .
- ^ Pelucchi C, La Vecchia C, Negri E, Talamini R, Franceschi S. Alcohol drinking and renal cell carcinoma in women and men. European Journal of Cancer Prevention. December 2002, 11 (6): 543–5. PMID 12457106. S2CID 45637355. doi:10.1097/00008469-200212000-00006.
- ^ Mahabir S, Leitzmann MF, Virtanen MJ, et al. Prospective study of alcohol drinking and renal cell cancer risk in a cohort of finnish male smokers. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 1 January 2005, 14 (1): 170–5. PMID 15668492.
- ^ Lee JE, Giovannucci E, Smith-Warner SA, Spiegelman D, Willett WC, Curhan GC. Total fluid intake and use of individual beverages and risk of renal cell cancer in two large cohorts. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. June 2006, 15 (6): 1204–11. PMID 16775182. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-05-0889 .
- ^ Setiawan VW, Stram DO, Nomura AM, Kolonel LN, Henderson BE. Risk factors for renal cell cancer: the multiethnic cohort. American Journal of Epidemiology. October 2007, 166 (8): 932–40. PMID 17656615. doi:10.1093/aje/kwm170 .
- ^ Morton LM, Zheng T, Holford TR, et al. Alcohol consumption and risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma: a pooled analysis. The Lancet Oncology. July 2005, 6 (7): 469–76. PMID 15992695. doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(05)70214-X.
- ^ Lim U, Morton LM, Subar AF, et al. Alcohol, smoking, and body size in relation to incident Hodgkin's and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma risk. American Journal of Epidemiology. September 2007, 166 (6): 697–708. PMID 17596266. doi:10.1093/aje/kwm122 .
- ^ Lim U, Schenk M, Kelemen LE, et al. Dietary determinants of one-carbon metabolism and the risk of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: NCI-SEER case-control study, 1998–2000. American Journal of Epidemiology. November 2005, 162 (10): 953–64. PMID 16221809. doi:10.1093/aje/kwi310 .
- ^ Briggs NC, Levine RS, Bobo LD, Haliburton WP, Brann EA, Hennekens CH. Wine drinking and risk of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma among men in the United States: a population-based case-control study. American Journal of Epidemiology. September 2002, 156 (5): 454–62. PMID 12196315. doi:10.1093/aje/kwf058 .
- ^ Besson H, Brennan P, Becker N, et al. Tobacco smoking, alcohol drinking and Hodgkin's lymphoma: a European multi-centre case–control study (EPILYMPH). British Journal of Cancer. August 2006, 95 (3): 378–84. PMC 2360649 . PMID 16819547. doi:10.1038/sj.bjc.6603229.
- ^ Chiu BC, Cerhan JR, Gapstur SM, et al. Alcohol consumption and non-Hodgkin lymphoma in a cohort of older women. British Journal of Cancer. July 1999, 80 (9): 1476–82. PMC 2363074 . PMID 10424754. doi:10.1038/sj.bjc.6690547.
- ^ Hagner, Patrick R.; Mazan-Mamczarz, Krystyna; Dai, Bojie; Corl, Sharon; Zhao, X. Frank; Gartenhaus, Ronald B. Alcohol consumption and decreased risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma: Role of mTOR dysfunction. Blood. 2009, 113 (22): 5526–5535. PMID 19293424. doi:10.1182/blood-2008-11-191783 .
- ^ Willett EV, Smith AG, Dovey GJ, Morgan GJ, Parker J, Roman E. Tobacco and alcohol consumption and the risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Cancer Causes & Control. October 2004, 15 (8): 771–80. PMID 15456990. S2CID 37360569. doi:10.1023/B:CACO.0000043427.77739.60.
- ^ Chang ET, Smedby KE, Zhang SM, et al. Alcohol intake and risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma in men and women. Cancer Causes & Control. December 2004, 15 (10): 1067–76. PMID 15801490. S2CID 38550648. doi:10.1007/s10552-004-2234-2.
- ^ Talamini R, Polesel J, Spina M, et al. The impact of tobacco smoking and alcohol drinking on survival of patients with non-Hodgkin lymphoma. International Journal of Cancer. April 2008, 122 (7): 1624–9. PMID 18059029. S2CID 12974079. doi:10.1002/ijc.23205.
- ^ Alcohol and Serious Consequences: Risks Increase Even With "Moderate" Intake 網際網路檔案館的存檔,存檔日期20 September 2006.
- ^ Corrao G, Bagnardi V, Zambon A, La Vecchia C. A meta-analysis of alcohol consumption and the risk of 15 diseases. Preventive Medicine. May 2004, 38 (5): 613–9. PMID 15066364. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2003.11.027.
- ^ World Cancer Research Fund, Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective, http://www.dietandcancerreport.org/ (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
外部連結
- International: International Agency for Research on Cancer home page
- International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Volume 44 Alcohol Drinking: Summary of Data Reported and Evaluation
- IARC Alcoholic beverages (Group 1) Ethanol in alcoholic beverages (Group 1) VOL.: 96 5. Summary of Data Reported
- Australia: Cancer Control Bulletin Alcohol and cancer risk
- Australia: POSITION STATEMENT: Alcohol and Cancer Prevention
- Australia: Cancer Institute NSW: Alcohol as a cause of Cancer (PDF format)
- Canada: Public Health Agency of Canada / Agence de santé publique du Canada Review of Lifestyle and Environmental Risk Factors for Breast Cancer (Contents and Introduction) PDF (full report in PDF format)
- UK: Committee on Carcinogenicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products Consumption of alcoholic beverages and risk of breast cancer
- UK: Committee on Carcinogenicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products Evidence for association between consumption of alcoholic beverages and breast cancer
- UK: Cancer risk of drinking (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- US: National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Alcohol Alert No. 21-1993 Alcohol and cancer (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- US: National Cancer Institute (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- US: National Toxicology Program Report on Carcinogens, Eleventh Edition Alcoholic Beverage Consumption (PDF)
- US: Ohio Department of Health Alcohol and cancer (PDF format)
- Other sites
- Toronto Cancer Prevention Coalition Alcohol Work Group Report on the Links between Alcohol and Cancer (PDF format)
- Alcohol consumption and cancer risk
- Even small amounts of alcohol increase a woman's risk of cancer (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- Science and medical sites