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讨论:中国发明

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维基百科,自由的百科全书
基础条目 中国发明属于维基百科科技主题的基础条目第五级。请勇于更新页面以及改进条目。

Untitled

看了英文页面再来看这个页面,觉得很汗!—以上未签名的留言由Leaflucy对话贡献)于2008-12-28T16:51:18加入。

列表的排序问题

本条目似乎翻译自英文版,但是条目内容应该重新整理,用英文名首字母排序对中文用户很不方便 ——Albus Ecneics (自由言论) 2010年3月21日 (日) 05:25 (UTC)[回复]

先等我翻完吧。排版是小事,还有其他只能绕过的技术问题。--Zanhsieh (留言) 2010年3月30日 (二) 04:20 (UTC)[回复]

四大发明

本条目中关于四大发明的内容比四大发明条目还详细,建议将主要内容合并到四大发明,让本条目更符合维基百科:摘要格式——Albus Ecneics (自由言论) 2010年3月21日 (日) 05:34 (UTC)[回复]

(+)支持,不过还是请留下部分叙述供参考。—安可(居住地:酒馆-职业:诗与歌之演者) ~更新日期: 2010年7月14日 (三) 14:44 (UTC)[回复]
(+)支持,应该留下部分叙述如英文维基百科。Srzh2 (留言) 2010年10月27日 (三) 11:43 (UTC)[回复]

部分遗漏项目


  • Rudder, stern-mounted and vertical axial: Lawrence V. Mott, who defines a steering oar as a rudder, states the ancient Egyptian use of stern-mounted rudders can be traced back to the 6th dynasty (2350-2200 BC).[64] Mott states that the method of attachment for rudders in the Arab, Chinese, and European worlds differed from each other, leading him to doubt the spread of the Chinese system of attachment by socket-and-jaws or block and tackle (versus European pintle-and-gudgeon invented by c. 1180 AD).[64][65] In regards to Mott's definition of a steering oar as a rudder, Joseph Needham, Richard Lefebvre des Noëttes, K.S. Tom, Chung Chee Kit, S.A.M. Adshead, Paul Johnstone and Sean McGrail state that a steering oar is not a rudder; the steering oar has the capacity to interfere with handling of the sails (limiting any potential for long ocean-going voyages) while it was fit more for small vessels on narrow, rapid-water transport; the rudder did not disturb the handling of the sails, took less energy to operate by its helmsman, was better fit for larger vessels on ocean-going travel, and first appeared in China.[66][67][68][69][65] Leo Block writes of the use of the steering oar in the ancient Mediterranean world (specifically in regards to the Phoenicians, 1550–300 BC): "A single sail tends to turn a vessel in an upwind or downwind direction, and rudder action is required to steer a straight course. A steering oar was used at this time because the rudder had not yet been invented. With a single sail, a frequent movement of the steering oar was required to steer a straight course; this slowed down the vessel because a steering oar (or rudder) course correction acts like a break."[70] The oldest depicted rudders at the back of a ship, without the use of oars or a steering oar, comes from several ceramic models of Chinese ships made during both the Western and Eastern eras of the Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD).[71][72][68][73] According to the scholars Zhang Zunyan and Vassilios Christides, there is literary evidence to suggest that the axial stern rudder existed in China since the 1st century BC,[74] while Gang Deng asserts the first reference was made in the Huainanzi of the 2nd century BC,[73] and K.S. Tom says the first clear reference dates to the 5th century AD.[68] However, K.S. Tom points to the fact that all Chinese pottery models of ships before this Guangzhou tomb model show steering oars instead of a rudder, which he states is strong evidence for the rudder's invention only by the 1st century AD.[75] Jacques Gernet states that while the Chinese had invented the rudder in the 1st century AD, it was not completely fixed to the sternpost of Chinese ships until the end of the 4th century.[76] The bulkhead ship design of the junk, which appeared roughly the same time as the rudder, provided the essential vertical components for the hinged axial rudder.[77] Deng points out that an Eastern Han (25–220) model distinctly shows a rudder located in its own separate cabin, suggesting that helmsmanship had already become an established profession.[73] Following the invention of the balanced rudder pivoted on an axis, Tom and Deng state that the Chinese then innovated the fenestrated rudder by the Song Dynasty (960–1279), with deliberate puncturing and boring out of holes in shapes such as diamonds, which, according to Tom, made the rudder "easier to steer, reduced turbulence drag, did not affect efficiency and was hydrodynamically sound."[78][73]
  • (已翻译)Star catalogue: China's earliest known astronomers were Gan De of the Qi State and Shi Shen of the Wei State, who created the earliest known star catalogues during the 4th century BC, roughly two centuries before the star catalogue of the Greek astronomer and mathematician Hipparchus (c. 190–c. 120 BC).[79][80] The star catalogue became a permanent feature of Chinese astronomy and some were quite large, such as the star catalogue of astronomer Zhang Heng (78–139) who catalogued 2,500 stars, placing them in a 'brightly shining' category, and recognized 124 constellations.[81][82]
  • 最古老的印刷星图:虽然身兼天文学家、朝廷官员、工程师于一身的苏颂(1020-1011年)所制星图在世界上肯定不是最古老的,然而它却是世上最早、付诸刊印的星图。[83]其星图(浑象紫微垣星图、浑象东北方中外官星图、浑象西南方中外官星图、浑象北极星图、浑象南极星图……等14幅)与其钟表报时的研究一并收录在其著作《新仪象法要》中。该书于1092年完稿,于1094年刊印,并在后来12、17、以及19世纪皆有增补修订。[84]苏颂星图亦采用了与其同时代的沈括(1031-1095年)科研成果,将北极星位置修正3度(即介于-350度和勾陈一之间)。[85]
  • Steel made from cast iron through oxygenation: The Chinese, who had been producing cast iron from the late Spring and Autumn Period (722–481 BC), produced steel by the 2nd century BC through a process of decarburization, i.e. using bellows to pump large amounts of oxygen on to molten cast iron.[86] This was first described in the Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD) book Huainanzi, compiled by scholars under Prince Liu An (179–122 BC).[87] The Chinese called this technique "the hundred refinings method," since the process was repeated over and over to incrementally strengthen the steel.[87] The back of swords were often made of more elastic wrought iron while the cutting edge of the blade itself was made of strong steel.[87] For steel, they used both quenching (i.e. rapid cooling) and tempering (i.e. slow cooling) methods of heat treatment.[87] Much later, the American inventor William Kelly (1811–1888) brought four Chinese metallurgists to Eddyville, Kentucky in 1845, whose expertise in steelmaking influenced his ideas about air injection to reduce carbon content of iron; his invention anticipated the Bessemer process of Henry Bessemer (1813–1898).[88]
  • Stirrup: There are authors who point out that it is unclear whether the stirrup was invented by northern nomads or the sedentary Chinese.[89] Liu Han (1961) credited the invention of the stirrup to nomadic invaders of northern China.[90] Archaeologial evidence shows that horse riders in India had a small loop for a single toe to be inserted by roughly the 1st century AD.[91] However, the first true depiction of the stirrup is featured on a Jin Dynasty (265–420) Chinese tomb figurine dated 302 AD, yet this was a single stirrup and was perhaps used only for initially mounting the horse.[92] It should be noted that the latter was found in Changsha, Hunan, far from the northern border.[93] The first validated depiction of a rider with a pair of saddle stirrups for both feet comes from a Jin Chinese tomb figurine dated 322.[92] The first actual specimens of stirrups comes from a Chinese tomb in southern Manchuria that is dated 415.[92] The stirrup was not widely used by Chinese cavalry until the 5th century.[91][94] By the 6th century, the use of the stirrup had spread as far west as the Byzantine Empire, where both the stirrup and Celtic horseshoe were adopted.[91]
  • (崔知悌著述需考证)以甲状腺激素来治疗甲状腺肿:在公元前239年的《吕氏春秋》中提到,远离海岸的淡水地方,秃头与甲状腺肿的人较多。[95][96]后来直到1860年,卡斯柏·阿道夫·夏丁(Gaspard Adolphe Chatin,1813-1901年)才将甲状腺肿与土壤食水中缺建立起关系。碘于1896年由尤金·鲍曼(Eugen Baumann)在甲状腺里发现,在当时1890年代甲状腺萃取物被用于治疗患者。[96]而远在此之前,唐朝(618年-907年)名医甄权(殁于643年)所著《古今录验方》中即给出自公羊取得甲状腺以治疗甲状腺肿大患者;而甲状腺贺尔蒙可以以药丸(药丸载体以压碎仁制成)或整个甲状腺去除脂肪吞服。[97][98]另一剂王焘提供的处方是利用风干的甲状腺磨成粉并佐酒吞服。[99]与同时代的名医崔知悌(全盛时期650年)在其文献中分开辨识了骨瘤-是种无法治愈、触手坚硬的肿胀物-以及真正的甲状腺肿-依其描述是种位于颈部可治愈、可移动的肿胀物。[99]古人亦采用了来自水牛、以及梅花鹿的甲状腺并成功治愈了甲状腺肿。[100][101][102][99]而根据《神龙本草经》所述,古人自公元前1世纪(葛洪,284-364年,大约在340年亦建议使用一味来自马尾藻类海草的药方[103])便利用富含碘的海藻以治疗甲状腺肿,[104][105]而在西方,同样的处方来自不知名人士在民间流传,一直到意大利巴勒莫的罗杰留斯(Rogerius)于其1180年所著《手术实践》(Practica Chirurgiae)中收录才见天日。[106]
  • (14世纪之后叙述,待见原书考证)厕纸:厕纸最早是在589年隋朝(581-618年)时期官员颜之推(531-591年)所提及[107],并在后来的朝代里有着持续使用的充分证据。[108][109]在851年唐朝(618-907)年间,一位来自中东的大食回教旅人评注道,当时的中国人不爱干净,在上厕所时使用纸张而非清水来清洁自己。[108]到了14世纪元朝(1271-1368)中叶,文献指出单在江淮,每年就生产高达上亿包的厕纸,而每包数量数千张到上万张。[108]明朝(1368-1644)刘若愚所著文献《酌中志》亦指出,皇帝已在使用薰过香的厕纸。[110][108]
  • Tomb, structural design imitating real life residences: The ancient Chinese built imperial tombs which by structural design imitated the actual living spaces and residences of the deceased tomb occupants when they were alive, a representation of their earthly life which would continue to serve them in the afterlife. For example, Fu Xinian writes that the tomb of Tang Dynasty (618–907) crown prince Li Chongrun (682–701) at the Qianling Mausoleum had a specific number and layout of "underground chambers, ventilation shafts, compartments, and air wells" which would have corresponded to the exact number and layout of "courtyards, main halls, rooms, and corridors" of his real palatial residence at Chang'an.[111]
  • (已翻译)Traction trebuchet catapult: The earliest type of trebuchet catapult was the traction trebuchet, developed first in China by the 5th or 4th century BC, the beginning of the Warring States Period (403–221 BC); to operate the trebuchet, a team of men pulled on ropes attached to the butt of the shorter segment of a long wooden beam separated by a rotating axle fixed to a base framework, allowing the longer segment of the beam to lunge forward and use its sling to hurl a missile; by the 9th century a hybrid of the traction and counterweight trebuchet, employing manpower and a pivoting weight, was used in the Middle East, Mediterranean Basin, and Northern Europe; by the 12th century, the full fledged counterweight trebuchet was developed under the Ayyubid dynasty of Islamic Syria and Egypt (described by Mardi bin Ali al-Tarsusi) and used in the Third Crusade; by the 13th century, the counterweight trebuchet found its way into Song Dynasty (960–1279) China via the Mongol invaders under Kublai Khan (r. 1260–1294) who used it in the Siege of Xiangyang (1267–1273).[112][113][114]
  • Trip hammer: The ancient Chinese used pestle and mortar to pound and decorticate grain, which was superseded by the treadle-operated tilt hammer (employing a simple lever and fulcrum) perhaps during the Zhou Dynasty (1122–256 BC) but first described in a Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD) dictionary of 40 BC and soon after by Yang Xiong (53 BC–18 AD) in his Fangyan dictionary written in 15 BC; the next stage in this evolution of grain-pounding devices was to apply hydraulic power, which the author Huan Tan (43 BC–28 AD) mentioned in his Xinlun of 20 AD, although he also described trip hammers powered by the labor of horses, oxen, donkeys, and mules.[115] After Huan Tan's book was written, numerous references to trip hammers powered by waterwheels were made in subsequent Chinese dynasties and in Medieval Europe by the 12th century.[116] However, trip hammers were also attested by both literary (Pliny, Natural History 18.97) and archaeological evidence in fairly widespread use in the Roman Empire by the 1st century AD.[117][118]
  • 可折叠伞:虽然形似太阳的遮阳伞在古巴比伦希腊罗马普遍存在,不过史上第一个有关于带机械滑杆、可折叠伞的书面证据,可追溯到国祚不长的新朝(9-23年),当时王莽(约9-23年)在21年时要求匠人将之安装在仪式用四轮马车上。[119][120]汉朝(前202-220年)学者服虔于2世纪时注释道可折叠的伞备有可蜷曲的关节,供其延展或缩回。[121][122]实际上王莽时期(或稍晚时期)可折叠雨伞残骸已于考古挖掘汉代乐浪郡(位于今北朝鲜)王光墓时出土。[123]然而,有强烈的证据支持可折叠伞早在前6世纪周朝(前1122-256)时期就已出现,一如考古发掘出土,可追溯到那时的洛阳青铜制带沟槽、滑座、插销的复杂枢纽所建议。[123]到了魏朝(220-265年),常见伞面已由丝绸制变换到桑树皮厚油纸制,虽然当时仍能找到丝绸制伞。[124]

参考文献

  1. ^ Wang (2007), 8 & 26.
  2. ^ Xu (1996), 197 fn. 20, 204.
  3. ^ Li (2006), 86.
  4. ^ Guo et al. (1996), 1112–1114.
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 Temple (1986), 199–200.
  6. ^ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Temple (1986), 199.
  7. ^ Temple (1986), 200–201.
  8. ^ Isabel (1995), 370.
  9. ^ Li (2002), 54. (For photo of Altar of Land and Grain five different soil colors).
  10. ^ Twitchett (1998), 874.
  11. ^ Tomb.1 of Shuangdun burial from Spring and Autumn Period (Chinese). Xinhua. Retrieved on 2008-7-25
  12. ^ Shao (2002), 52.
  13. ^ Ko (2007), 265.
  14. ^ Lewis (2006), 177.
  15. ^ Loewe (1999), 457.
  16. ^ Needham (1986), Volume 3, 143.
  17. ^ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 Ho (1991), 516.
  18. ^ Wicks (1992), 28.
  19. ^ Hartill (2005), 80–83.
  20. ^ Hartill (2005), 4–76.
  21. ^ Hartill (2005), 4.
  22. ^ Temple (1986), 139.
  23. ^ Temple (1986), 142–143.
  24. ^ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 Temple (1986), 143.
  25. ^ Needham (1986), Volume 3, 24–25.
  26. ^ Straffin (1998), 165.
  27. ^ Lui (1974), 391–392.
  28. ^ Lui (1974), 391.
  29. ^ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 29.5 29.6 Temple (1986), 127.
  30. ^ Temple (1986), 128–129.
  31. ^ Temple (1986), 130.
  32. ^ McClain and Ming (1979), 207–208.
  33. ^ McClain and Ming (1979), 212.
  34. ^ Needham (1986), Volume 4, Part 1, 218–219.
  35. ^ Kuttner (1975), 166–168.
  36. ^ Needham (1986), Volume 4, Part 1, 227–228.
  37. ^ 37.0 37.1 Temple (1986), 209.
  38. ^ 38.0 38.1 Needham (1986), Volume 4, Part 1, 223.
  39. ^ 39.0 39.1 Temple (1986), 234.
  40. ^ Needham (1986), Volume 3, 24–25, 121.
  41. ^ Shen, Crossley, and Lun (1999), 388.
  42. ^ Straffin (1998), 166.
  43. ^ 43.0 43.1 43.2 Temple (1986), 142.
  44. ^ Hsu (1993), 92.
  45. ^ 45.0 45.1 Hsu (1993), 93.
  46. ^ Hsu (1993), 90–93.
  47. ^ 中國古地圖的雕版印刷(一). 中国国家测绘局国土司. 2007-09-24 [2010-10-31].  已忽略未知参数|lang=(建议使用|language=) (帮助)
  48. ^ Needham (1986), Volume 3, 549, Plate LXXXII.
  49. ^ Giles (2007), VII–VIII.
  50. ^ Giles (2007), XIV.
  51. ^ Giles (2007), XI–XII.
  52. ^ 52.0 52.1 Tan (2002), 18.
  53. ^ 53.0 53.1 53.2 Fu (2002), 85.
  54. ^ Neehdam (1986), Volume 3, 99–100.
  55. ^ 55.0 55.1 Berggren, Borwein & Borwein (2004), 27
  56. ^ Arndt and Haenel (2001), 177
  57. ^ Wilson (2001), 16.
  58. ^ Needham (1986), Volume 3, 100–101.
  59. ^ Berggren, Borwein & Borwein (2004), 24–26.
  60. ^ Berggren, Borwein & Borwein (2004), 26.
  61. ^ Berggren, Borwein & Borwein (2004), 20.
  62. ^ Gupta (1975), B45–B48
  63. ^ Adolf P. Youschkevitch and Boris A. Rosenfeld, Al-Kashi, p. 256
  64. ^ 64.0 64.1 Mott (1991), 2–3, 92, 84, 95f.
  65. ^ 65.0 65.1 Adshead (2000), 156.
  66. ^ Needham (1986), Volume 4, Part 3, 627–628.
  67. ^ Chung (2005), 152.
  68. ^ 68.0 68.1 68.2 引用错误:没有为名为tom 1989 103的参考文献提供内容
  69. ^ Johnstone & McGrail (1988), 191.
  70. ^ Block (2003), 8–9.
  71. ^ Needham (1986), Volume 4, Part 3, 649–650.
  72. ^ Fairbank (2006), 192.
  73. ^ 73.0 73.1 73.2 73.3 Deng (1997), 42.
  74. ^ Christides (1996), 66–67.
  75. ^ Tom (1989), 103–104.
  76. ^ Gernet (1996), 378.
  77. ^ 引用错误:没有为名为needham volume 4 part 3 391的参考文献提供内容
  78. ^ Tom (1989), 104.
  79. ^ Needham (1986), Volume 3, 295.
  80. ^ Bowman (2000), 594.
  81. ^ 引用错误:没有为名为crespigny 2007 1050的参考文献提供内容
  82. ^ Balchin (2003), 27.
  83. ^ Sivin (1995), III, 32.
  84. ^ Needham (1986), Volume 4, Part 2, 448.
  85. ^ Needham (1986), Volume 3, 278.
  86. ^ Temple (1986), 49–50.
  87. ^ 87.0 87.1 87.2 87.3 Temple (1986), 50.
  88. ^ Temple (1986), 49.
  89. ^ Dien (1986), 33–56.
  90. ^ Dien (1981), 5–66.
  91. ^ 91.0 91.1 91.2 Addington (1990), 45.
  92. ^ 92.0 92.1 92.2 Graff (2002), 42.
  93. ^ Temple (1986), 89.
  94. ^ Hobson (2004), 103.
  95. ^ 见《吕氏春秋卷三尽数,原文:“...轻水所多秃与瘿人...”
  96. ^ 96.0 96.1 Temple (1986), 135.
  97. ^ 见《外台秘要》引《古今录验方》瘿病方一十八首,原文:“疗气瘿方...又方:羊靥一百枚,煖汤浸去脂炙,大枣二十枚(去皮),作丸服。忌慎如常药法。...又方:取羊靥一具,去脂含汁,汁尽去皮,日一具,七日含,便差。...”
  98. ^ Temple (1986), 133–134.
  99. ^ 99.0 99.1 99.2 Temple (1986), 134.
  100. ^ 见《圣济总录》卷一二五:方名 猪靥散 组成 豮猪靥2-7枚(炙),半夏(汤洗去滑)22枚,人参1两。主治气瘤瘿。
  101. ^ 见《僧深集方》五瘿丸治五瘿:鹿靥,以酒渍,炙干,再纳酒中更浸,炙令香,咽汁,味尽更易。
  102. ^ 见《本草纲目百病主治药 疡癜风,原文:“...〔兽人〕 鹿靥(并消瘿气结核。)羊靥 牛靥(并酒浸炙香,含咽。)猪靥(焙末,酒服;或酒浸,炙食。)旄牛靥(烧服,消瘿。)...”
  103. ^ 《肘后方》︰治项下卒结囊欲成瘿。用海藻一斤,洗去盐,浸酒饮之,不可间断,须要时时饮二三杯,有酒气方妙。
  104. ^ 见《神农本草经草部中品,原文:“...海藻,味苦寒。主治瘿瘤气,颈下核,破散结气,痈肿,症瘕坚气,腹中上下鸣,下十二水肿。一名落首。生池泽。...”
  105. ^ Medvei (1993), 48.
  106. ^ Temple (1986), 134–135
  107. ^ 见《颜氏家训卷一治家第五,原文:“...吾每读圣人之书,未尝不肃敬对之;其故纸有五经词义,及贤达姓名,不敢秽用也。”
  108. ^ 108.0 108.1 108.2 108.3 Needham, Volume 5, Part 1, 123.
  109. ^ Hunter (1978), 207.
  110. ^ 见《酌中志》,原文:“...宝钞司,掌印太监一员,管理佥书十余员,掌司、监工数十员。每年工部商人办纳稻草、石灰、木柴若干万斤;又香油四十五斤,以为膏车之用。抄造草纸,竖不足 二尺,阔不足三尺,各用帘抄成一张,即以独轮小车运赴平地晒干,类总入库,每岁进宫中以备宫人使用。至圣上所用草纸?系内官监纸房抄造,淡黄色,绵软细 厚,裁方可三寸余,进交管净近侍收,非此司造也。神庙至先帝,惟市买杭州好草纸用之。祖宗时抄造印板及红印,闻其在库中贮之。其衙门,左临河,后倚河。有 泡稻草池。每年池中滤出石灰草渣,二百余年,陆绩堆积,竟成一卧象之形,名曰“象山”。有作房七十二间,各具一灶,突朝天,名曰“七十二凶神”。凡空阔土 地,最宜种蔬,今蛙圃绵亘,桔槔相闻,若田家清野之象云。”
  111. ^ Fu (2002), 108.
  112. ^ Chevedden (1998), 179–222.
  113. ^ Turnbull (2001), 9, 45–46.
  114. ^ Chevedden (1999), 36.
  115. ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 183–184, 390–392.
  116. ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 379, 392–395.
  117. ^ Wilson (2002), 1–32.
  118. ^ Burnham (1997) 333–335.
  119. ^ 见《汉书卷九十九下 王莽传第六十九下,原文:“或言黄帝时建华盖以登仙,莽乃造华盖九重,高八丈一尺,金瑵羽葆,载以秘机四轮车,驾六马,力士三百人黄衣帻,车上人击鼓,挽者皆呼“登仙”。莽出,令在前。成官窃言:‘此似软车,非仙物也。’”
  120. ^ Needham (1986), Volume 4, Part 2, 70.
  121. ^ 《汉书》服虔注:“盖髙八丈,其杠皆有屈膝,可上下屈伸也”
  122. ^ Needham (1986), Volume 4, Part 2, 70–71.
  123. ^ 123.0 123.1 Needham (1986), Volume 4, Part 2, 71.
  124. ^ Temple (1986), 96.

“中国发明与发现列表”

是否有必要把维基英文的List of Chinese discoveries结合到这里,或另创条目?Srzh2 (留言) 2010年11月5日 (五) 06:56 (UTC)[回复]

个人是认为另创条目为妥--Zanhsieh (留言) 2010年11月5日 (五) 14:13 (UTC)[回复]

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外部链接已修改

各位维基人:

我刚刚修改了中国发明中的1个外部链接,请大家仔细检查我的编辑。如果您有疑问,或者需要让机器人忽略某个链接甚至整个页面,请访问这个简单的FAQ获取更多信息。我进行了以下修改:

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祝编安。—InternetArchiveBot (报告软件缺陷) 2017年6月17日 (六) 17:31 (UTC)[回复]